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<title>Bracero Program</title>

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Bracero Program

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</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks chicano-mexican-am-history vcard hlist notheme"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">This article is part of a series on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="History_of_Mexican_Americans" title="History of Mexican Americans">History of Chicanos and Mexican Americans</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Early-American period</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">

<ul><li><a href="Josefa_Segovia" title="Josefa Segovia">Josefa Segovia</a></li>

<li><a href="Las_Gorras_Blancas" title="Las Gorras Blancas">Las Gorras Blancas</a></li>

<li><a href="Mexican%E2%80%93American_War" title="Mexican–American War">Mexican–American War</a></li>

<li><a href="Mutualista" title="Mutualista">Mutualista</a></li>

<li><a href="San_Elizario_Salt_War" title="San Elizario Salt War">San Elizario Salt War</a></li>

<li><a href="Sonoratown%2C_Los_Angeles" title="Sonoratown, Los Angeles">Sonoratown</a></li>

<li><a href="Treaty_of_Guadalupe_Hidalgo" title="Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo">Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<ul><li><a href="1913_El_Paso_smelters'_strike" title="1913 El Paso smelters' strike">1913 El Paso smelters' strike</a></li>

<li><a href="1917_Bath_riots" title="1917 Bath riots">1917 Bath riots</a></li>

<li><a href="Bisbee_Deportation" title="Bisbee Deportation">Bisbee Deportation</a></li>

<li><a href="Bloody_Christmas_(1951)" title="Bloody Christmas (1951)">Bloody Christmas</a></li>

<li><a href="Bracero_program" class="mw-redirect" title="Bracero program">Bracero program</a></li>

<li><a href="Cantaloupe_strike_of_1928" title="Cantaloupe strike of 1928">Cantaloupe strike of 1928</a></li>

<li><a href="California_agricultural_strikes_of_1933" title="California agricultural strikes of 1933">California agricultural strikes</a></li>

<li><a href="Citrus_Strike_of_1936" title="Citrus Strike of 1936">Citrus Strike of 1936</a></li>

<li><a href="La_Matanza_(1910%E2%80%931920)" title="La Matanza (1910–1920)">La Matanza</a></li>

<li><a href="Mexican_Repatriation" title="Mexican Repatriation">Mexican Repatriation</a></li>

<li><a href="Operation_Wetback" title="Operation Wetback">Operation Wetback</a></li>

<li><a href="Plan_of_San_Diego" title="Plan of San Diego">Plan de San Diego</a></li>

<li><a href="Porvenir_massacre_(1918)" title="Porvenir massacre (1918)">Porvenir Massacre</a></li>

<li><a href="Sleepy_Lagoon_murder" title="Sleepy Lagoon murder">Sleepy Lagoon trial</a></li>

<li><a href="Zoot_Suit_Riots" title="Zoot Suit Riots">Zoot Suit Riots</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Chicano Movement</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">

<ul><li><a href="Aztl%C3%A1n" title="Aztlán">Aztlán</a></li>

<li><a href="Black-brown_unity" class="mw-redirect" title="Black-brown unity">Black-brown unity</a></li>

<li><a href="Brown_Berets" title="Brown Berets">Brown Berets</a></li>

<li><a href="Cat%C3%B3licos_por_La_Raza" title="Católicos por La Raza">Católicos por La Raza</a></li>

<li><a href="Chicanismo" title="Chicanismo">Chicanismo</a></li>

<li><a href="Chicano_Moratorium" title="Chicano Moratorium">Chicano Moratorium</a></li>

<li><a href="Colegio_Cesar_Chavez" title="Colegio Cesar Chavez">Colegio César Chávez</a></li>

<li><a href="Conferencia_de_Mujeres_por_la_Raza" title="Conferencia de Mujeres por la Raza">Conferencia de Mujeres</a></li>

<li><a href="East_L.A._walkouts" title="East L.A. walkouts">East L.A. walkouts</a></li>

<li><a href="Hijas_de_Cuauht%C3%A9moc" title="Hijas de Cuauhtémoc">Hijas de Cuauhtémoc</a></li>

<li><a href="Huelga_schools_(Houston)" title="Huelga schools (Houston)">Huelga schools</a></li>

<li><a href="Alianza_Federal_de_Mercedes" title="Alianza Federal de Mercedes">Land grant struggle</a></li>

<li><a href="Las_Adelitas_de_Aztl%C3%A1n" title="Las Adelitas de Aztlán">Las Adelitas de Aztlán</a></li>

<li><a href="Los_Siete_de_la_Raza" title="Los Siete de la Raza">Los Siete de la Raza</a></li>

<li><a href="Los_Seis_de_Boulder" title="Los Seis de Boulder">Los Seis de Boulder</a></li>

<li><a href="MEChA" title="MEChA">MEChA</a></li>

<li><a href="Occupation_of_Catalina_Island" title="Occupation of Catalina Island">Occupation of Catalina Island</a></li>

<li><a href="Plan_Espiritual_de_Aztl%C3%A1n" title="Plan Espiritual de Aztlán">Plan Espiritual de Aztlán</a></li>

<li><a href="Plan_de_Santa_B%C3%A1rbara" title="Plan de Santa Bárbara">Plan de Santa Bárbara</a></li>

<li><a href="Quinto_Sol" title="Quinto Sol">Quinto Sol</a></li>

<li><a href="Raza_Unida_Party" title="Raza Unida Party">Raza Unida Party</a></li>

<li><a href="United_Farm_Workers" title="United Farm Workers">United Farm Workers</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Post-Chicano Movement</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">

<ul><li><a href="1985%E2%80%931987_Watsonville_Cannery_strike" title="1985–1987 Watsonville Cannery strike">1985–1987 cannery strike</a></li>

<li><a href="Southern_California_drywall_strike" title="Southern California drywall strike">1992 Drywall Strike</a></li>

<li><a href="2019_El_Paso_shooting" class="mw-redirect" title="2019 El Paso shooting">2019 El Paso shooting</a></li>

<li><a href="Abolish_ICE" title="Abolish ICE">Abolish ICE</a></li>

<li><a href="Arizona_SB_1070" title="Arizona SB 1070">Arizona SB 1070</a></li>

<li><a href="Julian_Castro_2020_presidential_campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Julian Castro 2020 presidential campaign">Castro 2020</a></li>

<li><a href="Great_American_Boycott" title="Great American Boycott">Great American Boycott</a></li>

<li><a href="Farah_strike" title="Farah strike">Farah strike</a></li>

<li><a href="Justice_for_Janitors" title="Justice for Janitors">Justice for Janitors</a></li>

<li><a href="Murder_of_Selena" title="Murder of Selena">Murder of Selena</a></li>

<li><a href="1994_California_Proposition_187" title="1994 California Proposition 187">Proposition 187</a></li>

<li><a href="Xicanx" title="Xicanx">Xicanx</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Supreme Court cases</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">

<ul><li><a href="Botiller_v._Dominguez" title="Botiller v. Dominguez">Botiller v. Dominguez</a></li>

<li><a href="Hernandez_v._Texas" title="Hernandez v. Texas">Hernandez v. Texas</a></li>

<li><a href="San_Antonio_Independent_School_District_v._Rodriguez" title="San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez">San Antonio I.S.D. v. Rodriguez</a></li>

<li><a href="Espinoza_v._Farah_Manufacturing_Co." title="Espinoza v. Farah Manufacturing Co.">Espinoza v. Farah Manufacturing Co.</a></li>

<li><a href="United_States_v._Brignoni-Ponce" title="United States v. Brignoni-Ponce">U.S. v. Brignoni-Ponce</a></li>

<li><a href="Plyler_v._Doe" title="Plyler v. Doe">Plyler v. Doe</a></li>

<li><a href="Medell%C3%ADn_v._Texas" title="Medellín v. Texas">Medellín v. Texas</a></li>

<li><a href="Flores-Figueroa_v._United_States" title="Flores-Figueroa v. United States">Flores-Figueroa v. U.S.</a></li>

<li><a href="Leal_Garcia_v._Texas" title="Leal Garcia v. Texas">Leal Garcia v. Texas</a></li>

<li><a href="Mendez_v._Westminster" title="Mendez v. Westminster">Mendez v. Westminster</a></li>

<li><a href="Bernal_v._Fainter" title="Bernal v. Fainter">Bernal v. Fainter</a></li>

<li><a href="Department_of_Homeland_Security_v._Regents_of_the_University_of_California" title="Department of Homeland Security v. Regents of the University of California">DHS v. Regents of the Univ. of Cal.</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">by region</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">

<ul><li>Arizona (<a href="History_of_Mexican_Americans_in_Tucson" title="History of Mexican Americans in Tucson">Tucson</a>)</li>

<li>California (<a href="History_of_Mexican_Americans_in_Los_Angeles" title="History of Mexican Americans in Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a>)</li>

<li>Michigan (<a href="History_of_Mexican_Americans_in_Metro_Detroit" title="History of Mexican Americans in Metro Detroit">Detroit</a>)</li>

<li><a href="History_of_Mexican_Americans_in_Texas" title="History of Mexican Americans in Texas">Texas</a>

<ul><li><a href="History_of_Mexican_Americans_in_Dallas%E2%80%93Fort_Worth" title="History of Mexican Americans in Dallas–Fort Worth">Dallas–Fort Worth</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_Mexican_Americans_in_Houston" title="History of Mexican Americans in Houston">Houston</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below">

<ul><li> <a href="Portal%3AUnited_States" title="Portal:United States">United States portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">

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</style></td></tr></tbody></table>The Bracero Program (from the <a href="Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a> term bracero [bɾaˈse.ɾo], meaning "<a href="Manual_laborer" class="mw-redirect" title="Manual laborer">manual laborer</a>" or "one who works using his arms") was a temporary labor initiative between the United States and Mexico that allowed Mexican workers to be employed in the U.S. agricultural and railroad industries from 1942 to 1964.<a href="#cite_note-Calavita-1992-1">[1]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origins_and_purpose">Origins and purpose</h2></div>

The program, which was designed to fill agriculture shortages during World War II, offered employment contracts to 4.6 million braceros<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> in 24 U.S. states. It was the largest <a href="Guest_worker_program" title="Guest worker program">guest worker program</a> in U.S. history.<a href="#cite_note-Calavita-1992-1">[1]</a>

The program was the result of a series of laws and diplomatic agreements, initiated on August 4, 1942, when the United States signed the Mexican Farm Labor Agreement with <a href="Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a>.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> The program was jointly managed by the U.S. State Department, Department of Labor, and the Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS). Under the agreement, braceros were promised fair treatment, including:

<ul><li>Adequate living conditions (shelter, food, and sanitation),</li>

<li>A minimum wage of 30 cents per hour,</li>

<li>Protection from being drafted into military service,</li>

<li>A requirement that a portion of their wages be saved in accounts in Mexico.</li></ul>

Workers were also legally protected against discrimination, including being excluded from whites-only areas. The program also allowed the importation of contract laborers from Guam as a temporary measure during the early phases of <a href="World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Program_expansion_and_continuation">Program expansion and continuation</h2></div>

The agreement was extended with the Migrant Labor Agreement of 1951 (<a href="Act_of_Congress#Public_law,_private_law,_designation" title="Act of Congress"><abbr title="Public Law">Pub. L.</abbr></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://uslaw.link/citation/us-law/public/82/78">82–78</a>), enacted as an amendment to the <a href="Agricultural_Act_of_1949" title="Agricultural Act of 1949">Agricultural Act of 1949</a> by the <a href="United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">United States Congress</a>,<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> which set the official parameters for the Bracero Program until its termination in 1964.<a href="#cite_note-Calavita-1992-1">[1]</a>

In studies published in 2018 and 2023, it was found that the Bracero Program did not have an adverse effect on the wages or employment for American-born farm workers,<a href="#cite_note-Clemens-2018-6">[6]</a> and that termination of the program had adverse impact on American-born farmers and resulted in increased farm mechanization.<a href="#cite_note-:2-7">[7]</a>

Since abolition of the Bracero Program, temporary agricultural workers have been admitted with H-2 and <a href="H-2A_visa" title="H-2A visa">H-2A visas</a>.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Introduction">Introduction</h2></div>

The Bracero Program operated as a joint program under the State Department, the Department of Labor, and the Immigration and Naturalization Services (INS) in the Department of Justice. Under this pact, the laborers were promised decent living conditions in labor camps, such as adequate shelter, food and sanitation, as well as a minimum wage pay of 30 cents an hour. The agreement also stated that braceros would not be subject to discrimination such as exclusion from "white" areas.<a href="#cite_note-Ngai-2004-8">[8]</a>

This program, which commenced in <a href="Stockton%2C_California" title="Stockton, California">Stockton, California</a> in August 1942,<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> was intended to fill the labor shortage in agriculture because of World War II. In Texas, the program was banned by Mexico for several years during the mid-1940s due to the discrimination and maltreatment of Mexicans, which included <a href="Lynching" title="Lynching">lynchings</a> along the border. Texas Governor <a href="Coke_Stevenson" class="mw-redirect" title="Coke Stevenson">Coke Stevenson</a> pleaded on several occasions to the Mexican government that the ban be lifted to no avail.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> The program lasted 22 years and offered employment contracts to 5 million braceros in 24 U.S. states—becoming the largest foreign worker program in U.S. history.<a href="#cite_note-Calavita-1992-1">[1]</a>

The Mexican government, at the federal, state, and local levels, handled the selection of workers for the Bracero Program. The Mexican states of Guanajuato, Jalisco, and Michoacán, supplied large numbers of laborers to the United States. Political issues such as opposition to the ruling political party, disputes with labor unions, and even local responses to natural disasters played a key role in deciding who could leave Mexico to work in the U.S. This decentralized system meant that local officials had considerable control over who received contracts, which often led to favoritism, bribery, and corruption.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a>

From 1942 to 1947, only a relatively small number of braceros were admitted, accounting for less than 10 percent of U.S. hired workers.<a href="#cite_note-migration.ucdavis.edu-12">[12]</a> Yet both U.S. and Mexican employers became heavily dependent on braceros for willing workers; bribery was a common way to get a contract during this time. Consequently, several years of the short-term agreement led to an increase in undocumented immigration and a growing preference for operating outside of the parameters set by the program.<a href="#cite_note-Ngai-2004-8">[8]</a>

Moreover, Truman's Commission on Migratory Labor in 1951 disclosed that the presence of Mexican workers depressed the income of American farmers, even as the U.S. Department of State urged a new bracero program to counter the popularity of communism in Mexico. Furthermore, it was seen as a way for Mexico to be involved in the Allied armed forces. The first braceros were admitted on September 27, 1942, for the sugar-beet harvest season. From 1948 to 1964, the U.S. allowed in on average 200,000 braceros per year.<a href="#cite_note-Ngai-2004-8">[8]</a> For some, it took up to 6 months of waiting to enter legally to work as a Bracero.<a href="#cite_note-:3-13">[13]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Braceros_in_the_railroad_industry">Braceros in the railroad industry</h2></div>

In 1942 when the Bracero Program came to be, it was not only agriculture work that was contracted, but also railroad work. Just like braceros working in the fields, Mexican contract workers were recruited to work on the railroads. The <a href="Southern_Pacific_Transportation_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Pacific Transportation Company">Southern Pacific railroad</a> was having a hard time keeping full-time rail crews on hand. The dilemma of short handed crews prompted the railway company to ask the government permission to have workers come in from Mexico. The railroad version of the Bracero Program carried many similarities to agricultural braceros. It was written that, "The bracero railroad contract would preserve all the guarantees and provisions extended to agricultural workers."<a href="#cite_note-Gamboa_2016-14">[14]</a> Only eight short months after agricultural braceros were once again welcomed to work, so were braceros on the railroads. The "Immigration and Naturalization authorized, and the U.S. attorney general approved under the 9th Proviso to Section 3 of the Immigration Act of February 5, 1917, the temporary admission of unskilled Mexican non-agricultural workers for railroad track and maintenance-of-way employment. The authorization stipulated that railroad braceros could only enter the United States for the duration of the war."<a href="#cite_note-Gamboa_2016-14">[14]</a>

Over the course of the next few months, braceros began coming in by the thousands to work on railroads. Multiple railroad companies began requesting Mexican workers to fill labor shortages. Bracero railroaders were also in understanding of an agreement between the U.S. and Mexico to pay a living wage, and provide adequate food, housing, and transportation. Similarly, to the agricultural braceros, the exploitation of the railroad work braceros went on well into the 1960s.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Postwar_policy_shifts_and_labor_controversies">Postwar policy shifts and labor controversies</h2></div>

After World War II, American agricultural employers pushed for a renewed Bracero Program to ensure a stable labor force for planting and harvesting crops. During 1948 negotiations, Mexico demanded that the U.S. penalize employers who hired undocumented workers, but this provision was not included in the final legislation.

President Truman signed Public Law 78 (which did not include employer sanctions) in July 1951.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> Soon after it was signed, United States negotiators met with Mexican officials to prepare a new bilateral agreement. This agreement made it so that the U.S. government were the guarantors of the contract, not U.S. employers. The braceros could not be used as replacement workers for U.S. workers on strike; however, the braceros were not allowed to go on strike or renegotiate wages. The agreement set forth that all negotiations would be between the two governments.<a href="#cite_note-Calavita-1992-1">[1]</a>

A year later, the <a href="Immigration_and_Nationality_Act_of_1952" title="Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952">Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952</a> was passed by the <a href="82nd_United_States_Congress" title="82nd United States Congress">82nd United States Congress</a> whereas <a href="Presidency_of_Harry_S._Truman" title="Presidency of Harry S. Truman">President Truman</a> vetoed the <a href="United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">U.S. House</a> immigration and nationality legislation on June 25, 1952.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> The H.R. 5678 <a href="Bill_(law)" title="Bill (law)">bill</a> conceded a <a href="Classes_of_offenses_under_United_States_federal_law" title="Classes of offenses under United States federal law">federal felony</a> for knowingly concealing, harboring, or shielding a <a href="Foreign_national" title="Foreign national">foreign national</a> or <a href="Illegal_immigration" title="Illegal immigration">illegal immigrant</a>.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> However the Texas Proviso stated that employing unauthorized workers would not constitute as "harboring or concealing" them. This also led to the establishment of the <a href="H-2A_visa" title="H-2A visa">H-2A visa</a> program,<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> which enabled laborers to enter the U.S. for temporary work. There were a number of hearings about the United States–<a href="Mexican_migration" class="mw-redirect" title="Mexican migration">Mexico migration</a>, which overheard complaints about Public Law 78 and how it did not adequately provide them with a reliable supply of workers. Simultaneously, unions complained that the braceros' presence was harmful to U.S. workers.<a href="#cite_note-migration.ucdavis.edu-12">[12]</a>

The outcome of this meeting was that the United States ultimately got to decide how the workers would enter the country by way of reception centers set up in various Mexican states and at the United States border. At these reception centers, potential braceros had to pass a series of examinations. The first step in this process required that the workers pass a local level selection before moving onto a regional migratory station where the laborers had to pass a number of physical examinations.

Lastly, at the U.S. reception centers, workers were inspected by health departments, stripped and sprayed with <a href="DDT" title="DDT">DDT</a>, a dangerous pesticide.<a href="#cite_note-migration.ucdavis.edu-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a>

They were then sent to contractors that were looking for workers.<a href="#cite_note-migration.ucdavis.edu-12">[12]</a> Operations were primarily run by the <a href="United_States_Public_Health_Service" title="United States Public Health Service">United States Public Health Service</a> (USPHS) along with other military personnel. Braceros frequently dealt with harassment from these officials and could be kept for extended periods of time in the examination rooms.<a href="#cite_note-:0-21">[21]</a> These rooms held as many as 40 men at a time, and migrants would have to wait 6 or more hours to be examined.<a href="#cite_note-:0-21">[21]</a> According to first hand accounts, personnel would often process 800 to 1600 braceros at a time and, on occasion, upwards of 3100.<a href="#cite_note-:0-21">[21]</a> The invasive health procedures and overcrowded processing centers would continue to persist throughout the program's 22-year tenure.<a href="#cite_note-:0-21">[21]</a>

To address the overwhelming amount of undocumented migrants in the United States, the Immigration and Naturalization Service launched <a href="Operation_Wetback" title="Operation Wetback">Operation Wetback</a> in June 1954, as a way to repatriate illegal laborers back to Mexico. The illegal workers who came over to the states at the initial start of the program were not the only ones affected by this operation, there were also massive groups of workers who felt the need to extend their stay in the U.S. well after their labor contracts were terminated.<a href="#cite_note-migration.ucdavis.edu-12">[12]</a>

In the first year, over a million Mexicans were sent back to Mexico; 3.8 million were repatriated when the operation was finished. The criticisms of unions and churches made their way to the U.S. Department of Labor, as they lamented that the braceros were negatively affecting the U.S. <a href="Farmworker" title="Farmworker">farmworkers</a> in the 1950s. In 1955, the AFL and CIO spokesman testified before a Congressional committee against the program, citing lack of enforcement of pay standards by the Labor Department.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> The Department of Labor eventually acted upon these criticisms and began closing numerous bracero camps in 1957–1958, they also imposed new minimum wage standards and in 1959 they demanded that American workers recruited through the Employment Service be entitled to the same wages and benefits as the braceros.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Emergency_farm_labor_program_and_federal_public_laws">Emergency farm labor program and federal public laws</h2></div>

1942-1947 Emergency Farm Labor Supply Program

<th>Year

</th>

<th>Number of Braceros

</th>

<th>Applicable U.S. Law

</th>

<th>Date of Enactment

</th></tr>

<tr>

<td>1942

</td>

<td>4,203

</td>

</td>

<td>August 4, 1942

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>1943

</td>

</td>

<td><a href="Act_of_Congress#Public_law,_private_law,_designation" title="Act of Congress"><abbr title="Public Law">Pub. L.</abbr></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://uslaw.link/citation/us-law/public/78/45">78–45</a> | 57 Stat. 70

</td>

<td>April 29, 1943

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>1944

</td>

<td>62,170

</td>

<td>February 14, 1944

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>1945

</td>

<td>(44,600)

</td>

<td>December 28, 1945

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>1946

</td>

<td>(44,600)

</td>

<td>August 14, 1946

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>1947

</td>

</td>

<td>April 28, 1947

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>1947

</td>

</td>

<td>May 26, 1947

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>1947

</td>

</td>

<td>June 30, 1947

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>1947

</td>

</td>

<td>July 31, 1947

</td></tr></tbody></table>

1948-1964 Farm Labor Supply Program

<th>Year

</th>

<th>Number of Braceros

</th>

<th>Applicable U.S. Law

</th>

<th>Date of Enactment

</th></tr>

<tr>

<td>1948

</td>

<td>(30,000)

</td>

<td>July 3, 1948

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>1948–50

</td>

</td>

<td>Period of administrative agreements

</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>1951

</td>

</td>

<td>July 12, 1951

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>1952

</td>

<td>197,100

</td>

<td>Agricultural Act, 1949 Amended - Title V

</td>

<td>July 12, 1951

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>1953

</td>

<td>201,380

</td>

<td>August 8, 1953

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>1954

</td>

<td>309,033

</td>

<td>March 16, 1954

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>1955

</td>

<td>398,650

</td>

<td>August 9, 1955

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>1956

</td>

<td>445,197

</td>

<td>Agricultural Act, 1949 Amended - Title V

</td>

<td>July 12, 1951

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>1957

</td>

<td>436,049

</td>

<td>Agricultural Act, 1949 Amended - Title V

</td>

<td>July 12, 1951

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>1958

</td>

<td>432,491

</td>

<td>August 27, 1958

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>1959

</td>

<td>437,000

</td>

<td>Agricultural Act, 1949 Amended - Title V

</td>

<td>July 12, 1951

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>1960

</td>

<td>319,412

</td>

<td>September 14, 1960

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>1961

</td>

<td>296,464

</td>

<td>October 3, 1961

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>1962

</td>

<td>198,322

</td>

<td>Agricultural Act, 1949 Amended - Title V

</td>

<td>July 12, 1951

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>1963

</td>

<td>186,000

</td>

<td>Agricultural Act, 1949 Amended - Title V

</td>

<td>July 12, 1951

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>1964

</td>

<td>179,298

</td>

<td>December 13, 1963

</td></tr></tbody></table>

The workers who participated in the bracero program have generated significant local and international struggles challenging the U.S. government and Mexican government to identify and return 10 percent mandatory deductions taken from their pay, from 1942 to 1948, for savings accounts that they were legally guaranteed to receive upon their return to Mexico at the conclusion of their contracts. Many field working braceros never received their savings, but most railroad working braceros did.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-29">[29]</a>

<a href="Lawsuit" title="Lawsuit">Lawsuits</a> presented in federal courts in <a href="California" title="California">California</a>, in the late 1990s and early 2000s (decade), highlighted the substandard conditions and documented the ultimate destiny of the savings accounts deductions, but the suit was thrown out because the Mexican banks in question never operated in the United States. Today, it is stipulated that ex-braceros can receive up to $3,500.00 as compensation for the 10% only by supplying check stubs or contracts proving they were part of the program during 1942 to 1948. It is estimated that, with interest accumulated, $500 million is owed to ex-braceros, who continue to fight to receive the money owed to them.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-29">[29]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Organized_labor">Organized labor</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notable_strikes">Notable strikes</h3></div>

<ul><li>January–February (exact dates aren't noted) 1943: In Burlington, Washington, braceros strike because farmers were paying higher wages to whites than to the braceros doing similar work<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a></li>

<li>1943: In Medford, Oregon, one of the first notable strikes was by a group of braceros that<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> staged a work stoppage to protest their pay based on per box versus per hour. The growers agreed to pay them 75 cents an hour versus the 8 or 10 cents per box.</li>

<li>May 1944: Braceros in Preston, Idaho, struck over wages<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a></li>

<li>July and September 1944: Braceros near Rupert and Wilder, Idaho, strike over wages<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a></li>

<li>October 1944: Braceros in Sugar City and Lincoln, Idaho refused to harvest beets after earning higher wages picking potatoes<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a></li>

<li>May–June 1945: Bracero asparagus cutters in Walla Walla, Washington, struck for twelve days complaining they grossed only between $4.16 and $8.33 in that time period<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a></li>

<li>June 1945: Braceros from Caldwell-Boise sugar beet farms struck when hourly wages were 20 cents less than the established rate set by the County Extension Service. They won a wage increase.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a></li>

<li>June 1945: In Twin Falls, Idaho, 285 braceros went on strike against the <a href="Amalgamated_Sugar_Company" title="Amalgamated Sugar Company">Amalgamated Sugar Company</a> for two days which resulted in them effectively receiving a 50 cent raise which put them 20 cents over the prevailing wage of the contracted labor<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a></li>

<li>June 1945: Three weeks later braceros at Emmett struck for higher wages<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a></li>

<li>July 1945: In Idaho Falls, 170 braceros organized a sit-down strike that lasted nine days after fifty cherry pickers refused to work at the prevailing rate.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a></li>

<li>October 1945: In Klamath Falls, Oregon, braceros and transient workers from California refuse to pick potatoes due to insufficient wages<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a></li>

<li>A majority of Oregon's Mexican labor camps were affected by labor unrest and stoppages in 1945<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a></li>

<li>November 1946: In Wenatchee, Washington, 100 braceros refused to be transported to Idaho to harvest beets and demanded a train back to Mexico.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a></li></ul>

The number of strikes in the Pacific Northwest is much longer than this list. Two strikes, in particular, should be highlighted for their character and scope: the Japanese-Mexican strike of 1943 in Dayton, Washington<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> and the June 1946 strike of 1000 plus braceros that refused to harvest lettuce and peas in Idaho.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1943_strike">1943 strike</h3></div>

The 1943 strike in <a href="Dayton%2C_Washington" title="Dayton, Washington">Dayton, Washington</a>, is unique in the unity it showed between Mexican braceros and <a href="Japanese-American" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese-American">Japanese-American</a> workers. The wartime labor shortage not only led to tens of thousands of Mexican braceros being used on Northwest farms, it also saw the U.S. government allow some ten thousand Japanese Americans, who were placed against their will in <a href="Internment_of_Japanese_Americans" title="Internment of Japanese Americans">internment camps</a> during World War II, to leave the camps in order to work on farms in the Northwest.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> The strike at Blue Mountain Cannery erupted in late July. After "a white female came forward stating that she had been assaulted and described her assailant as 'looking Mexican' ... the prosecutor's and sheriff's office imposed a mandatory 'restriction order' on both the Mexican and Japanese camps."<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> No investigation took place nor were any Japanese or Mexican workers asked their opinions on what happened.

The <a href="Walla_Walla_Union-Bulletin" title="Walla Walla Union-Bulletin">Walla Walla Union-Bulletin</a> reported the restriction order read:

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</style><blockquote class="templatequote">Males of Japanese and or Mexican extraction or parentage are restricted to that area of Main Street of Dayton, lying between Front Street and the easterly end of Main Street. The aforesaid males of Japanese and or Mexican extraction are expressly forbidden to enter at any time any portion of the residential district of said city under penalty of law.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a></blockquote>

The workers' response came in the form of a strike against this perceived injustice. Some 170 Mexicans and 230 Japanese struck. After multiple meetings including some combination of government officials, Cannery officials, the county sheriff, the Mayor of Dayton and representatives of the workers, the restriction order was voided. Those in power actually showed little concern over the alleged assault. Their real concern was ensuring the workers got back into the fields. Authorities threatened to send soldiers to force them back to work.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> Two days later the strike ended. Many of the Japanese and Mexican workers had threatened to return to their original homes, but most stayed there to help harvest the pea crop.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Wage_discrepancies">Wage discrepancies</h4></div>

The U.S. and Mexico made an agreement to garnish bracero wages, save them for the contracted worker (agriculture or railroad), and put them into bank accounts in Mexico for when the bracero returned to their home. Like many, braceros who returned home did not receive those wages. Many never had access to a bank account at all. It is estimated that the money the U.S. "transferred" was about $32 million.<a href="#cite_note-OSORIO_2005_95–103-48">[48]</a> Often braceros would have to take legal action in attempts to recover their garnished wages. According to bank records money transferred often came up missing or never went into a Mexican banking system. In addition to the money transfers being missing or inaccessible by many braceros, missing wage payments existed up and down the railroads, as well as in all the country's farms.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reasons_for_strikes_in_the_Northwest">Reasons for strikes in the Northwest</h3></div>

One key difference between the Northwest and braceros in the Southwest or other parts of the United States involved the lack of Mexican government labor inspectors. According to Galarza, "In 1943, ten Mexican labor inspectors were assigned to ensure contract compliance throughout the United States; most were assigned to the Southwest and two were responsible for the northwestern area."<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> The lack of inspectors made the policing of pay and working conditions in the Northwest extremely difficult. The farmers set up powerful collective bodies like the Associated Farmers Incorporated of Washington with a united goal of keeping pay down and any union agitators or communists out of the fields.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> The Associated Farmers used various types of law enforcement officials to keep "order" including privatized law enforcement officers, the state highway patrol, and even the National Guard.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a>

Another difference is the proximity, or not, to the Mexican border. In the Southwest, employers could easily threaten braceros with deportation knowing the ease with which new braceros could replace them. However, in the Northwest due to the much farther distance and cost associated with travel made threats of deportation harder to follow through with. Braceros in the Northwest could not easily skip out on their contracts due to the lack of a prominent Mexican-American community which would allow for them to blend in and not have to return to Mexico as so many of their counterparts in the Southwest chose to do and also the lack of proximity to the border.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a>

Knowing this difficulty, the Mexican consulate in Salt Lake City, and later the one in Portland, Oregon, encouraged workers to protest their conditions and advocated on their behalf much more than the Mexican consulates did for braceros in the Southwest.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> Combine all these reasons together and it created a climate where braceros in the Northwest felt they had no other choice, but to strike in order for their voices to be heard.

Braceros met the challenges of discrimination and exploitation by finding various ways in which they could resist and attempt to improve their living conditions and wages in the Pacific Northwest work camps. Over two dozen strikes were held in the first two years of the program. One common method used to increase their wages was by "loading sacks" which consisted of braceros loading their harvest bags with rock in order to make their harvest heavier and therefore be paid more for the sack.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> Also, braceros learned that timing was everything. Strikes were more successful when combined with work stoppages, cold weather, and a pressing harvest period.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> The notable strikes throughout the Northwest proved that employers would rather negotiate with braceros than to deport them, employers had little time to waste as their crops needed to be harvested and the difficulty and expense associated with the bracero program forced them to negotiate with braceros for fair wages and better living conditions.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a>

Braceros were also discriminated and segregated in the labor camps. Some growers went to the extent of building three labor camps, one for whites, one for blacks, and the one for Mexicans.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> For example, in 1943 in Grants Pass, Oregon, 500 braceros suffered food poisoning, one of the most severe cases reported in the Northwest. This detrition of the quality and quantity of food persisted into 1945 until the Mexican government intervened.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> Lack of food, poor living conditions, discrimination, and exploitation led braceros to become active in strikes and to successfully negotiate their terms.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Impact_and_influence_of_home_life">Impact and influence of home life</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="US_government_censorship_of_family_contact">US government censorship of family contact</h3></div>

As men stayed in the U.S., wives, girlfriends, and children were left behind often for decades.<a href="#cite_note-Rosas-2014-59">[59]</a> Bracero men searched for ways to send for their families and saved their earnings for when their families were able to join them. In the U.S., they made connections and learned the culture, the system, and worked to found a home for a family.<a href="#cite_note-Rosas-2014-59">[59]</a> U.S. Consulate officials would censor letters those whom were of Mexican descent and varying legal status, both men and women.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> These letters went through the US postal system and originally they were inspected before being posted for anything written by the men indicating any complaints about unfair working conditions.<a href="#cite_note-Rosas-2014-59">[59]</a> However, once it became known that men were actively sending for their families to permanently reside in the US, they were often intercepted, and many men were left with no responses from their women.<a href="#cite_note-Rosas-2014-59">[59]</a> Permanent settlement of bracero families was feared by the US, as the program was originally designed as a temporary work force which would be sent back to Mexico eventually.<a href="#cite_note-Rosas-2014-59">[59]</a> Many Braceros moved their families to towns near the U.S.-Mexico border, helping urbanize those towns into cities.<a href="#cite_note-:4-61">[61]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Women's_experiences_in_the_Bracero_Program">Women's experiences in the Bracero Program</h3></div>

In La Pena Negra, Mayra Lizette Avila centers the experiences of Mexican women who were deeply affected by the U.S.-Mexico Bracero Program (1942–1964), which brought millions of Mexican men to the U.S. for temporary labor. The study explores how these women managed the absence of male breadwinners, shouldering new roles in both the household and community. Avila draws from oral histories and archival sources to highlight individual stories. For example, some women became sole providers, working in agriculture, managing family finances, and raising children alone. This was a sudden shift in traditional gender roles. Others reported feelings of abandonment, especially when their husbands failed to return or sent little money home. Divorce and familial estrangement also became more common, particularly among women who challenged expectations of passive loyalty. Yet, the work also emphasizes resilience and power for these women. Some women used extended kinship networks or created informal community support systems to survive economically and emotionally. Avila positions these experiences as crucial to understanding the broader impact of transnational labor migration, not just for those who migrated, but for those who stayed.

Due to the shortage of labor in northern Mexico caused by the Bracero Program, Avila Camacho, the former president of Mexico, was under pressure to fill those gaps. In 1944, Camacho endorsed a campaign for women to join the workforce to balance the shortage.<a href="#cite_note-:4-61">[61]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effects">Effects</h2></div>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="H-2A_visa" title="H-2A visa">H-2A visa</a></div>

After the 1964 termination of the Bracero Program, the A-TEAM, or Athletes in Temporary Employment as Agricultural Manpower, program of 1965 was meant to simultaneously deal with the resulting shortage of farmworkers and a shortage of <a href="Summer_job" class="mw-redirect" title="Summer job">summer jobs</a> for teenagers.<a href="#cite_note-Arellano-2018-62">[62]</a> More than 18,000 17-year-old high school students were recruited to work on farms in Texas and California. Only 3,300 ever worked in the fields, and many of them quickly quit or staged <a href="Strike_action" title="Strike action">strikes</a> because of the poor working conditions, including oppressive heat and decrepit housing.<a href="#cite_note-Arellano-2018-62">[62]</a> The program was cancelled after the first summer.

The year after the Bracero program was terminated, the <a href="Immigration_and_Nationality_Act_of_1965" title="Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965">Hart-Celler Act</a> was passed, placing caps on the number of visas granted to residents of the Western hemisphere for the first time in United States history.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> By the time the Hart-Celler Act was implemented and the Bracero program was fully phased out, the vast majority of former braceros were left without legal means to work in the United States, so many continued to do so illegally. This led to a dramatic rise in illegal immigration after 1965, though the overall number of migrants entering the US remained about the same as during the Bracero program.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a>

The <a href="Catholic_Church_in_Mexico" title="Catholic Church in Mexico">Catholic Church in Mexico</a> was opposed to the Bracero Program, objecting to the separation of husbands and wives and the resulting disruption of family life; to the supposed exposure of migrants to vices such as prostitution, alcohol, and gambling in the United States; and to migrants' exposure to <a href="Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestant</a> missionary activity while in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-Craig-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-Fitzgerald-66">[66]</a> Starting in 1953, Catholic priests were assigned to some bracero communities,<a href="#cite_note-Craig-65">[65]</a> and the Catholic Church engaged in other efforts specifically targeted at braceros.<a href="#cite_note-Fitzgerald-66">[66]</a>

Labor unions that tried to organize agricultural workers after World War II targeted the Bracero Program as a key impediment to improving the wages of domestic farm workers.<a href="#cite_note-Ferris,_Susan_1997-67">[67]</a> These unions included the National Farm Laborers Union (NFLU), later called the National Agricultural Workers Union (NAWU), headed by <a href="Ernesto_Galarza" title="Ernesto Galarza">Ernesto Galarza</a>, and the Agricultural Workers Organizing Committee (AWOC), AFL-CIO. During his tenure with the <a href="Community_Service_Organization" title="Community Service Organization">Community Service Organization</a>, <a href="C%C3%A9sar_Ch%C3%A1vez" class="mw-redirect" title="César Chávez">César Chávez</a> received a grant from the AWOC to organize in <a href="Oxnard%2C_California" title="Oxnard, California">Oxnard, California</a>, which culminated in a protest of domestic U.S. agricultural workers of the <a href="U.S._Department_of_Labor" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Department of Labor">U.S. Department of Labor</a>'s administration of the program.<a href="#cite_note-Ferris,_Susan_1997-67">[67]</a> In January 1961, in an effort to publicize the effects of bracero labor on labor standards, the AWOC led a strike of lettuce workers at 18 farms in the <a href="Imperial_Valley" title="Imperial Valley">Imperial Valley</a>, an agricultural region on the California-Mexico border and a major destination for braceros.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a>

Prior to the end of the Bracero Program in 1964, the <a href="Chualar_bus_crash" class="mw-redirect" title="Chualar bus crash">Chualar bus crash</a> in Salinas, California made headlines illustrating just how harsh braceros situations were in California. In the accident 31 braceros lost their lives in a collision with a train and a bracero transportation truck. This particular accident led activist groups from agriculture and the cities to come together and strongly oppose the Bracero Program.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> Griego, a <a href="Political_scientist" class="mw-redirect" title="Political scientist">political scientist</a> discusses the bargaining position of both countries, arguing that the Mexican government lost all real bargaining-power after 1950. In addition to the surge of activism in American migrant labor the Chicano Movement was now in the forefront creating a united image on behalf of the fight against the Bracero Program.

The end of the Bracero Program in 1964 was followed by the rise to prominence of the <a href="United_Farm_Workers" title="United Farm Workers">United Farm Workers</a> (UFW) and the subsequent transformation of American migrant labor under the leadership of <a href="C%C3%A9sar_Ch%C3%A1vez" class="mw-redirect" title="César Chávez">César Chávez</a>, <a href="Gilbert_Padilla" title="Gilbert Padilla">Gilbert Padilla</a>, and <a href="Dolores_Huerta" title="Dolores Huerta">Dolores Huerta</a>. Newly formed labor unions (sponsored by Chávez and Huerta), namely the <a href="Agricultural_Workers_Organizing_Committee" class="mw-redirect" title="Agricultural Workers Organizing Committee">Agricultural Workers Organizing Committee</a>, were responsible for series of public demonstrations including the <a href="Delano_grape_strike" title="Delano grape strike">Delano grape strike</a>. These efforts demanded change for labor rights, wages and the general mistreatment of workers that had gained national attention with the Bracero Program. Change ensued with the UFW championing a 40% wage increase for grape farm laborers nationwide.<a href="#cite_note-:1-70">[70]</a> While the federal minimum wage remained at $1.25 per hour, laborers operating under the grape contract made $1.50.<a href="#cite_note-:1-70">[70]</a> In order to avoid increased wages, farmers who formerly employed braceros would later turn to the mechanization of labor-intensive tasks.

A 1980 <a href="Congressional_Research_Service" title="Congressional Research Service">Congressional Research Service</a> report found that the Bracero Program was "instrumental" in significantly reducing illegal immigration by the mid-1950s.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> The end of the program saw a rise in Mexican legal immigration between 1963 and 1972, as many Mexican men who had already lived in the United States chose to return, bringing along their families.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> The dissolution of the Bracero program also saw a rise in undocumented immigration, with American growers hired increasing numbers of undocumented migrants.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> The <a href="Immigration_Reform_and_Control_Act_of_1986" title="Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986">Immigration Reform and Control Act</a> was passed in 1986 to address the hiring of undocumented migrants by American employers.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a>

Operation Wetback, executed in order to address concerns over illegal immigration while the Bracero program brought in unprecedented numbers of Mexican migrants, continues to have relevance nearly 75 years later, as <a href="Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</a> cited it as an example of what he would do should he win the presidency during his <a href="Donald_Trump_2016_presidential_campaign" title="Donald Trump 2016 presidential campaign">2016 presidential run</a>.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> After its completion, Operation Wetback was hailed as having brought illegal immigration under control,<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> but in reality, it was largely unsuccessful in stemming illegal immigration.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a>

The aftermath of the Bracero Program's effect on labor conditions for agricultural workers continues to be debated. On one hand, the end of the program allowed workers to unionize and facilitated victories made by labor organizations and other individuals. A key victory for these former braceros was the abolition of the short-handed hoe, el cortito, spurred by the efforts of American lawyer Maurice Jordan. Jordan was successfully able to win a case against California growers, claiming that the tool did not increase crop yield and caused several health issues for workers.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a>

Some consider the H-2A visa program to be a repeat of the abuses of the Bracero Program where workers report dangerous conditions. For example, a blueberry farm worker in Washington died in August 2017 for reported 12-hour shifts under hot conditions to meet production quotas.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_popular_culture">In popular culture</h2></div>

<ul><li><a href="Woody_Guthrie" title="Woody Guthrie">Woody Guthrie</a>'s poem "<a href="Deportee_(Plane_Wreck_at_Los_Gatos)" title="Deportee (Plane Wreck at Los Gatos)">Deportee (Plane Wreck at Los Gatos)</a>", set to music by Martin Hoffman, commemorates the deaths of 28 braceros being repatriated to Mexico in January 1948. The song has been recorded by dozens of folk artists.</li>

<li>Protest singer <a href="Phil_Ochs" title="Phil Ochs">Phil Ochs</a>'s song "Bracero" focuses on the exploitation of the Mexican workers in the program.</li>

<li>A minor character in the 1948 Mexican film <a href="Nosotros_los_Pobres" title="Nosotros los Pobres">Nosotros los Pobres</a> wants to become a bracero.</li>

<li>The 1949 film <a href="Border_Incident" title="Border Incident">Border Incident</a> explores two federal agents' efforts to end an illegal bracero-smuggling operation.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a></li>

<li>Famed satirist <a href="Tom_Lehrer" title="Tom Lehrer">Tom Lehrer</a> wrote the song "George Murphy" about <a href="United_States_Senator" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Senator">Senator</a> <a href="George_Murphy" title="George Murphy">George Murphy</a> in response to an <a href="George_Murphy#Career" title="George Murphy">infamous racist gaffe</a> referring to Mexican labor, which included the lines "Should Americans pick crops? George says "No" / 'Cause no-one but a Mexican would stoop so low / And after all, even in Egypt, the pharaohs / Had to import Hebrew braceros".<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a></li>

<li>The 2010 documentary Harvest of Loneliness describes the history of the bracero program. It includes interviews with several former braceros and family members, and with labor historian Henry Anderson.</li>

<li>A Convenient Truth (2014) urges viewers not to let their governments repeat "the follies" of the Braceros program, during the end credits.</li>

<li>In 1953, <a href="Pedro_Infante" title="Pedro Infante">Pedro Infante</a> recorded Canto del Bracero under Peerlees label.</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Exhibitions_and_collections">Exhibitions and collections</h2></div>

In October 2009, the <a href="Smithsonian" class="mw-redirect" title="Smithsonian">Smithsonian</a> <a href="National_Museum_of_American_History" title="National Museum of American History">National Museum of American History</a> opened a bilingual exhibition titled, "Bittersweet Harvest: The Bracero Program, 1942–1964." Through photographs and audio excerpts from oral histories, this exhibition examined the experiences of bracero workers and their families while providing insight into the <a href="History_of_Mexican_Americans" title="History of Mexican Americans">history of Mexican Americans</a> and historical context to today's debates on <a href="Guest_worker_programs" class="mw-redirect" title="Guest worker programs">guest worker programs</a>. The exhibition included a collection of photographs taken by photojournalist Leonard Nadel in 1956, as well as documents, objects, and an audio station featuring oral histories collected by the Bracero Oral History Project. The exhibition closed on January 3, 2010. The exhibition was converted to a traveling exhibition in February 2010 and traveled to <a href="Arizona" title="Arizona">Arizona</a>, <a href="California" title="California">California</a>, <a href="Idaho" title="Idaho">Idaho</a>, <a href="Michigan" title="Michigan">Michigan</a>, <a href="Nevada" title="Nevada">Nevada</a>, and <a href="Texas" title="Texas">Texas</a> under the auspices of <a href="Smithsonian_Institution" title="Smithsonian Institution">Smithsonian Institution</a> Traveling Exhibition Service.<a href="#cite_note-Smithsonian-82">[82]</a>

<ul><li><a href="Bracero_Selection_Process" title="Bracero Selection Process">Bracero Selection Process</a></li>

<li><a href="1917_Bath_Riots" class="mw-redirect" title="1917 Bath Riots">1917 Bath Riots</a></li>

<li><a href="Maquiladora" title="Maquiladora">Maquiladora</a></li>

<li><a href="Operation_Wetback" title="Operation Wetback">Operation Wetback</a></li>

<li><a href="1963_Chualar_bus_crash" class="mw-redirect" title="1963 Chualar bus crash">Chualar Bus Incident</a></li>

<li><a href="Mexican_Repatriation" title="Mexican Repatriation">Mexican Repatriation</a></li>

<li><a href="Bracero_Monument" title="Bracero Monument">Bracero Monument</a></li>

<li><a href="Rio_Vista_Bracero_Reception_Center" title="Rio Vista Bracero Reception Center">Rio Vista Bracero Reception Center</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Footnotes">Footnotes</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFTruman1951" class="citation web cs1">Truman, Harry S. (July 13, 1951). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/4729041.1951.001.umich.edu/page/388/">"Special Message to the Congress on the Employment of Agricultural Workers from Mexico - July 13, 1951"</a>. Internet Archive. Washington, D.C.: National Archives and Records Service. pp. 389–393.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFTruman1952" class="citation web cs1">Truman, Harry S. (June 25, 1952). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/4729044.1952.001.umich.edu/page/440/">"Veto of Bill To Revise the Laws Relating to Immigration, Naturalization, and Nationality - June 25, 1952"</a>. Internet Archive. Washington, D.C.: National Archives and Records Service. pp. 441–447.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.congress.gov/bill/82nd-congress/house-bill/5678/">"H.R. 5678 - Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952"</a>. P.L. 82-414 ~ 66 Stat. 163. Congress.gov. June 27, 1952.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.uscis.gov/working-united-states/temporary-workers/h-2a-temporary-agricultural-workers">"H-2A Temporary Agricultural Workers"</a>. USCIS. Retrieved February 23, 2016.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/2006/01/28/5176177/the-bath-riots-indignity-along-the-mexican-border">"The Bath Riots: Indignity Along the Mexican Border"</a>. <a href="NPR" title="NPR">NPR</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230708012409/https://www.npr.org/2006/01/28/5176177/the-bath-riots-indignity-along-the-mexican-border">Archived</a> from the original on July 8, 2023.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-:0-21">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_21-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_21-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_21-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_21-3">d</a> <cite id="CITEREFMolina2011" class="citation journal cs1">Molina, Natalia (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3093266">"Borders, Laborers, and Racialized Medicalization Mexican Immigration and US Public Health Practices in the 20th Century"</a>. American Journal of Public Health. 101 (6): 1024–1031. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2105%2FAJPH.2010.300056">10.2105/AJPH.2010.300056</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3093266">3093266</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21493932">21493932</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archives.texasobserver.org/issue/1955/03/28#page=7">"Labor Groups Oppose Bracero Law Features"</a>. Archives.TexasObserver.org. Texas Observer. March 28, 1955. p. 7. Retrieved July 6, 2020.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFScruggs1963" class="citation journal cs1">Scruggs, Otey M. (August 1, 1963). "Texas and the Bracero Program, 1942–1947". Pacific Historical Review. 32 (3): 251–64. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F4492180">10.2307/4492180</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4492180">4492180</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/item/llsl-v56/">"Mexico - Migration of Agricultural Workers - August 4, 1942"</a> [56 Stat. 1759, E.A.S. 278 - No. 312]. United States Statutes at Large. LVI (U.S. Statutes at Large, Volume 56 (1942), 77th Congress, Session II). United States Library of Congress: 1759–1769. August 4, 1942.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> average for '43, 45–46 calculated from total of 220,000 braceros contracted '42-47, cited in Navarro, Armando, Mexicano political experience in occupied Aztlán (2005)

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Navarro,_Armando_2005-26">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Navarro,_Armando_2005_26-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Navarro,_Armando_2005_26-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Navarro,_Armando_2005_26-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Navarro,_Armando_2005_26-3">d</a> average for '47–48 calculated from total of 74,600 braceros contracted '47–49, cited in Navarro, Armando, Mexicano political experience in occupied Aztlán (2005)

</li>

<li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> average calculated from total of 401,845 braceros under the period of negotiated administrative agreements, cited in Navarro, Armando, Mexicano political experience in occupied Aztlán (2005)

</li>

<li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> Data 1951–67 cited in Gutiérrez, David Gregory, Between two worlds (1996)

</li>

<li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-29">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_29-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_29-1">b</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://migration.ucdavis.edu/rmn/more.php?id=1112">"Braceros: History, Compensation – Rural Migration News | Migration Dialogue"</a>. migration.ucdavis.edu. Retrieved February 23, 2016.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> Northwest Farm News, February 3, 1944. Cited in Gamboa, "Mexican Labor and World War II", p. 80.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFGonzales-Berry2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Erlinda_Gonz%C3%A1les-Berry" title="Erlinda Gonzáles-Berry">Gonzales-Berry, Erlinda</a> (2012). Mexicanos in Oregon: Their Stories, Their Lives. Corvallis: Oregon State University Press. p. 46.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> Narrative, June 1944, Preston, Idaho, Box 52, File: Idaho, GCRG224, NA. Cited in Gamboa, "Mexican Labor and World War II", p. 81.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> Narrative, July 1944, Rupert, Idaho, Box 52, File: Idaho; Narrative, October 1944, Lincoln, Idaho; all in GCRG224, NA. Cited in Gamboa, "Mexican Labor and World War II", pp. 81–82.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> Narrative, October 1944, Sugar City, Idaho, Box 52, File: Idaho; Narrative, October 1944, Lincoln, Idaho; all in GCRG224, NA. Cited in Gamboa, "Mexican Labor and World War II", p. 82.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> Visitation Reports, Walter E. Zuger, Walla Walla County, June 12, 1945, EFLR, WSUA. Cited in Gamboa, "Mexican Labor and World War II", p. 84.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> Idaho Daily Statesman, June 8, 1945. Cited in Gamboa, "Mexican Labor and World War II", p. 84.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFJimenez_Sifuentez2016" class="citation book cs1">Jimenez Sifuentez, Mario (2016). Of Forests and Fields: Mexican Labor in the Pacific Northwest. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press. p. 26.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> Idaho Daily Statesman, June 29, 1945. Cited in Gamboa, "Mexican Labor and World War II", p. 84.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> Idaho Daily Statesman, July 11, 14, 1945. Cited in Gamboa, "Mexican Labor and World War II", p. 84.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> Daily Statesman, October 5, 1945. Cited in Gamboa, "Mexican Labor and World War II", p. 82.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> Annual Report of State Supervisor of Emergency Farm Labor Program 1945, Extension Service, p. 56, OSU. Cited in Gamboa, "Mexican Labor and World War II", p. 82.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> Marshall, Maureen E. Wenatchee's Dark Past. Wenatchee, Wash: The Wenatchee World, 2008.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFJerry_GarciaGilberto_Garcia" class="citation book cs1">Jerry Garcia; Gilberto Garcia. "Chapter 3: Japanese and Mexican Labor in the Pacific Northwest, 1900–1945". Memory, Community, and Activism: Mexican Migration and Labor in the Pacific Northwest. pp. 85–128.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFRoger_Daniels1993" class="citation book cs1">Roger Daniels (1993). Prisoners Without Trials: Japanese Americans in World War II. New York: Hill and Wang. p. 74.</cite> Cited in Garcia and Garcia, Memory, Community, and Activism: Mexican Migration and Labor in the Pacific Northwest, p. 104.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> College of Washington and the U.S. Department of Agriculture Cooperating, Specialist Record of County Visit, Columbia County, Walter E. Zuger, Assistant State Farm Labor Supervisor, July 21–22, 1943. Cited in Garcia and Garcia, Memory, Community, and Activism: Mexican Migration and Labor in the Pacific Northwest, p. 112.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> "Cannery Shut Down By Work Halt." Walla Walla Union-Bulletin, July 22, 1943. Cited in Garcia and Garcia, Memory, Community, and Activism: Mexican Migration and Labor in the Pacific Northwest, p. 113.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> College of Washington and the U.S. Department of Agriculture Cooperating, Specialist Record of County Visit, Columbia County, Walter E. Zuger, Assistant State Farm Labor Supervisor, July 21–22, 1943. Cited in Garcia and Garcia, Memory, Community, and Activism: Mexican Migration and Labor in the Pacific Northwest, p. 113.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-OSORIO_2005_95–103-48"><a href="#cite_ref-OSORIO_2005_95–103_48-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFOsorio2005" class="citation journal cs1">Osorio, Jennifer (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41102104">"Proof of a Life Lived: The Plight of the Braceros and What It Says About How We Treat Records"</a>. Archival Issues. 29 (2): 95–103. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1067-4993">1067-4993</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41102104">41102104</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> Ernesto Galarza, "Personal and Confidential Memorandum". pp. 8–9. Cited in Gamboa, "Mexican Labor and World War II", p. 75.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> Northwest Farm News, January 13, 1938. Cited in Gamboa, "Mexican Labor and World War II", p. 76.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> Idaho Falls Post Register, September 12, 1938; Yakima Daily Republic, August 25, 1933. Cited in Gamboa, "Mexican Labor and World War II", p. 76.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMario_Jimenez_Sifuentez2016" class="citation book cs1">Mario Jimenez Sifuentez (2016). Of Forests and Fields: Mexican Labor in the Pacific Northwest. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press. p. 28.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFErnesto_Galarza1964" class="citation book cs1">Ernesto Galarza (1964). Merchants of Labor: The Mexican Bracero Story.</cite> Cited in Gamboa, "Mexican Labor and World War II", p. 77.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMario_Jimenez_Sifuentez2016" class="citation book cs1">Mario Jimenez Sifuentez (2016). Of Forests and Fields: Mexican Labor in the Pacific Northwest. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press. p. 25.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFErasmo_Gamboa1990" class="citation book cs1">Erasmo Gamboa (1990). Mexican Labor & World War II: Braceros in the Pacific Northwest, 1942–1947. Seattle: University of Washington. p. 85.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> Mario Jimenez Sifuentez. Of Forests and Fields. pp. 28–29

</li>

<li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFRobert_Bauman2005" class="citation journal cs1">Robert Bauman (2005). "Jim Crow in the Tri-Cities, 1943–1950". The Pacific Northwest Quarterly. 96 (3): 126.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFErasmo_Gamboa1981" class="citation journal cs1">Erasmo Gamboa (1981). "Mexican Migration into Washington State: A History, 1940–1950". The Pacific Northwest Quarterly. 72 (3): 125.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-Rosas-2014-59">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rosas-2014_59-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rosas-2014_59-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rosas-2014_59-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rosas-2014_59-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rosas-2014_59-4">e</a> <cite id="CITEREFRosas2014" class="citation book cs1">Rosas, Ana Elizabeth (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/j.ctt13x1hjj">Abrazando El Espíritu: Bracero Families Confront the US-Mexico Border</a>. University of California Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780520282667</bdi>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/j.ctt13x1hjj">10.1525/j.ctt13x1hjj</a>. Retrieved December 5, 2021.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-:4-61">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_61-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_61-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFCastillo-Muñoz2016" class="citation book cs1">Castillo-Muñoz, Verónica (November 15, 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525/california/9780520291638.001.0001">Other California</a>. University of California Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-520-29163-8</bdi>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-Arellano-2018-62">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Arellano-2018_62-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Arellano-2018_62-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFArellano2018" class="citation news cs1">Arellano, Gustavo (August 23, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2018/07/31/634442195/when-the-u-s-government-tried-to-replace-migrant-farmworkers-with-high-schoolers">"When The U.S. Government Tried To Replace Migrant Farmworkers With High Schoolers"</a>. NPR. Retrieved August 24, 2018.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?path=/prelim@title8/chapter12&edition=prelim">"8 USC Ch. 12: IMMIGRATION AND NATIONALITY"</a>. uscode.house.gov. Retrieved April 14, 2025.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMassey2016" class="citation journal cs1">Massey, Douglas S. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/26159208">"The Mexico-U.S. Border in the American Imagination"</a>. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 160 (2): 160–177. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-049X">0003-049X</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-Craig-65">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Craig_65-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Craig_65-1">b</a> Richard B. Craig, The Bracero Program: Interest Groups and Foreign Policy (University of Texas Press, 1971).

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Fitzgerald-66">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fitzgerald_66-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fitzgerald_66-1">b</a> David Fitzgerald, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/uncovering-emigration-policies-catholic-church-mexico">Uncovering the Emigration Policies of the Catholic Church in Mexico</a>, Migration Police Institute (May 21, 2009).

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<li id="cite_note-Ferris,_Susan_1997-67">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ferris,_Susan_1997_67-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ferris,_Susan_1997_67-1">b</a> Ferris, Susan and Sandoval, Ricardo (1997). The Fight in the Fields: Cesar Chavez and the Farmworkers Movement

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<li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> Los Angeles Times, January 23, 1961 "Lettuce Farm Strike Part of Deliberate Union Plan"

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<li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> <cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/whq/article-lookup/doi/10.2307/westhistquar.44.2.0124">"A Town Full of Dead Mexicans: The Salinas Valley Bracero Tragedy of 1963, the End of the Bracero Program, and the Evolution of California's Chicano Movement"</a>. The Western Historical Quarterly. 44 (2): 124–143. July 2013. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2Fwesthistquar.44.2.0124">10.2307/westhistquar.44.2.0124</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-:1-70">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_70-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_70-1">b</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wilsoncenter.org/article/mexican-braceros-and-us-farm-workers">"Mexican Braceros and US Farm Workers"</a>. www.wilsoncenter.org. Retrieved March 30, 2023.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFCongressional_Research_Service1980" class="citation cs2">Congressional Research Service (1980), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=umn.31951d00817043c&view=1up&page=root&size=100&seq=45&q1=without+question">Temporary Worker Programs: Background and Issues</a>, Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, p. 41, retrieved May 12, 2024 – via HathiTrust</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFSen._Simpson1986" class="citation web cs1">Sen. Simpson, Alan K. [R-WY (November 6, 1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.congress.gov/bill/99th-congress/senate-bill/1200">"S.1200 - 99th Congress (1985-1986): Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986"</a>. www.congress.gov. Retrieved April 14, 2025.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFGarcía1980" class="citation book cs1">García, Juan Ramón (1980). Operation Wetback: the mass deportation of Mexican undocumented workers in 1954. Contributions in ethnic studies. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Pr. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-313-21353-3</bdi>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFHernández2006" class="citation journal cs1">Hernández, Kelly Lytle (November 1, 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/whq/article-abstract/37/4/421/1915627?redirectedFrom=fulltext">"The Crimes and Consequences of Illegal Immigration: A Cross-Border Examination of Operation Wetback, 1943 to 1954"</a>. Western Historical Quarterly. 37 (4): 421–444. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F25443415">10.2307/25443415</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0043-3810">0043-3810</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMurray1982" class="citation journal cs1">Murray, Douglas L. (October 1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307/800182">"The Abolition of El Cortito, the Short-Handled Hoe: A Case Study in Social Conflict and State Policy in California Agriculture"</a>. Social Problems. 30 (1): 26–39. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F800182">10.2307/800182</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0037-7791">0037-7791</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/800182">800182</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFBacon2018" class="citation web cs1">Bacon, David (June 1, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://progressive.org/api/content/3df612ae-6359-11e8-a1a9-12408cbff2b0/">"'You Came Here to Suffer'"</a>. Progressive.org. Retrieved March 16, 2023.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFAuerbach2008" class="citation journal cs1">Auerbach, Jonathan (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20484414">"Noir Citizenship: Anthony Mann's "Border Incident""</a>. Cinema Journal. 47 (4): 102–120. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fcj.0.0021">10.1353/cj.0.0021</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0009-7101">0009-7101</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20484414">20484414</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144835225">144835225</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFtomlehrer" class="citation web cs1">tomlehrer. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://tomlehrersongs.com/george-murphy/">"George Murphy (incl. The George Murphy Campaign Song and addenda)"</a>. Tom Lehrer Songs. Retrieved September 7, 2022.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Smithsonian-82"><a href="#cite_ref-Smithsonian_82-0">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wayback.archive-it.org/3340/20220906203238/https://americanhistory.si.edu/bracero/introduction">"Bittersweet Harvest: The Bracero Program 1942–1964 / Cosecha Amarga Cosecha Dulce: El Programa Bracero 1942–1964"</a>. National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution. April 4, 2012. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://americanhistory.si.edu/bracero/introduction">the original</a> on September 6, 2022. Retrieved April 26, 2012.</cite>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2></div>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFDriscoll1999" class="citation book cs1">Driscoll, Barbara A. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7N_XxwEACAAJ">The Tracks North: The Railroad Bracero Program of World War II</a>. Austin, Texas: Center for Mexican American Studies, University of Texas at Austin. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0292715929</bdi>. <a href="LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/97049865">97049865</a>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/241413991">241413991</a>.</cite></li>

<li>Deborah Cohen, Braceros: Migrant Citizens and Transnational Subjects in the Postwar United States and Mexico Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2011.</li>

<li>García, Alberto. "Regulating Bracero Migration: How National, Regional, and Local Political Considerations Shaped the Bracero Program." Hispanic American Historical Review, vol. 101, no. 3, 2021, pp. 433–460. Duke University Press, https://doi.org/10.1215/00182168-9159802.</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHirsch1967" class="citation web cs1">Hirsch, Hans G. (1967). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/CAT31349392/">"Termination of the Bracero Program: Foreign Economic Aspects"</a>. Internet Archive. Foreign Agricultural Economic Report, No. 34. Washington, D.C.: Economic Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/2330552">2330552</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFKoestler2010" class="citation web cs1">Koestler, Fred L. (February 22, 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/bracero-program">"Bracero Program"</a>. Handbook of Texas Online. Texas State Historical Association.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMcElroy1965" class="citation web cs1">McElroy, Robert C. (June 1965). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130507052419/http://naldc.nal.usda.gov/download/CAT87201767/PDF">"Termination of the Bracero Program: Some Effects on Farm Labor and Migrant Housing Needs"</a>. National Agricultural Library Digital Collections. Agricultural Economic Report, No. 77. Washington, D.C.: Economic Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/14819771">14819771</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://naldc.nal.usda.gov/download/CAT87201767/PDF">the original</a> on May 7, 2013.</cite></li>

<li>Don Mitchell, They Saved the Crops: Labor, Landscape, and the Struggle Over Industrial Farming in Bracero-Era California. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 2012.</li>

<li>Ana Elizabeth Rosas, Abrazando el Espíritu: Bracero Families Confront the US-Mexico Border. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2014.</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFScruggs1963" class="citation journal cs1">Scruggs, Otey M. (1963). "Texas and the Bracero Program, 1942–1947". Pacific Historical Review. 32 (3): 251–264. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F4492180">10.2307/4492180</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4492180">4492180</a>.</cite></li>

<li>Michael Snodgrass, "The Bracero Program, 1942–1964," in Beyond the Border: The History of Mexican-U.S. Migration, Mark Overmyer-Velásquez, ed., New York: Oxford University Press, 2011, pp. 79–102.</li>

<li>Michael Snodgrass, "Patronage and Progress: The bracero program from the Perspective of Mexico," in Workers Across the Americas: The Transnational Turn in Labor History, Leon Fink, ed., New York: Oxford University Press, 2011, pp. 245–266.</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFFlores2016" class="citation book cs1">Flores, Lori A. (2016). Grounds for dreaming: Mexican Americans, Mexican immigrants, and the California farmworker movement. New Haven: Yale University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0300196962</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/906878123">906878123</a>.</cite></li>

<li>Avila, Mayra Lizette. La Pena Negra: Mexican Women, Gender, and Labor During the Bracero Program, 1942–1964. MA thesis, University of Texas at El Paso, 2018.</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

<ul><li> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Bracero_program" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Bracero program">Bracero program</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.farmworkers.org/benglish.html">The Bracero Project</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060628005101/http://www.kvie.org/programs/kvie/braceros/default.htm">Los Braceros: Strong Arms to Aid the USA – Public Television Program</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070528090406/http://digitalcollections.library.oregonstate.edu/cdm4/client/bracero/">Braceros in Oregon Photograph Collection</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://americanhistory.si.edu/bracero/introduction">Bittersweet Harvest: The Bracero Program 1942–1964</a> An online exhibition from the National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digitalcommons.utep.edu/bracero/">University of Texas El Paso Oral History Archive</a></li>

<li><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://guides.loc.gov/latinx-civil-rights/bracero-program">"1942: Bracero Program"</a>. LOC Research Guides. United States Library of Congress.</cite></li>

<li><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.uscis.gov/about-us/our-history/history-office-and-library/featured-stories-from-the-uscis-history-office-and-library/bracero-program-images">"Bracero Program: Photographs of the Mexican Agricultural Labor Program ~ 1951-1964"</a>. U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services. Bracero Program - USCIS History Library. U.S. Department of Homeland Security. January 7, 2020.</cite></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oregondigital.org/sets/braceros">"Braceros in Oregon Photograph Collection."</a> Oregon State University, Special Collections and Archives Research Center.</li>

<li><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/WhyBrace1959">"Why Braceros?"</a>. Internet Archive. Wilding-Butler Division of Wilding, Inc. 1959. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1232500309">1232500309</a>.</cite></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://braceroarchive.org/">Bracero Archive</a> - a project of the <a href="Roy_Rosenzweig_Center_for_History_and_New_Media" title="Roy Rosenzweig Center for History and New Media">Roy Rosenzwieg Center for History and New Media</a>, <a href="George_Mason_University" title="George Mason University">George Mason University</a>, the <a href="National_Museum_of_American_History" title="National Museum of American History">Smithsonian National Museum of American History</a>, <a href="Brown_University" title="Brown University">Brown University</a>, and The Institute of Oral History at the <a href="University_of_Texas_at_El_Paso" title="University of Texas at El Paso">University of Texas at El Paso</a>.</li></ul>

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<ul><li><a href="Nationality_law_in_the_American_Colonies" title="Nationality law in the American Colonies">Nationality law in the American Colonies</a></li>

<li><a href="Plantation_Act_1740" title="Plantation Act 1740">Plantation Act of 1740</a></li>

<li><a href="Naturalization_Act_of_1790" title="Naturalization Act of 1790">Naturalization Act of 1790</a> / <a href="Naturalization_Act_of_1795" title="Naturalization Act of 1795">1795</a> / <a href="Naturalization_Act_of_1798" title="Naturalization Act of 1798">1798</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">19th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Naturalization_Law_of_1802" class="mw-redirect" title="Naturalization Law of 1802">Naturalization Act of 1802</a></li>

<li><a href="An_Act_to_Encourage_Immigration" title="An Act to Encourage Immigration">Act to Encourage Immigration (1864)</a></li>

<li><a href="Civil_Rights_Act_of_1866" title="Civil Rights Act of 1866">Civil Rights Act of 1866</a></li>

<li><a href="Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">14th Amendment (1868)</a></li>

<li><a href="Naturalization_Act_of_1870" title="Naturalization Act of 1870">Naturalization Act of 1870</a></li>

<li><a href="Immigration_Act_of_1882" title="Immigration Act of 1882">Immigration Act of 1882</a></li>

<li><a href="Chinese_Exclusion_Act_of_1882" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882">Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882</a></li>

<li><a href="Scott_Act_of_1888" title="Scott Act of 1888">Scott Act of 1888</a></li>

<li><a href="Immigration_Act_of_1891" title="Immigration Act of 1891">Immigration Act of 1891</a></li>

<li><a href="Geary_Act_of_1892" class="mw-redirect" title="Geary Act of 1892">Geary Act of 1892</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Immigration_Act_of_1903" class="mw-redirect" title="Immigration Act of 1903">Immigration Act of 1903</a></li>

<li><a href="Naturalization_Act_of_1906" title="Naturalization Act of 1906">Naturalization Act of 1906</a></li>

<li><a href="Gentlemen's_Agreement_of_1907" title="Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907">Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907</a></li>

<li><a href="Immigration_Act_of_1907" title="Immigration Act of 1907">Immigration Act of 1907</a></li>

<li><a href="Immigration_Act_of_1917" title="Immigration Act of 1917">Immigration Act of 1917</a></li>

<li><a href="Immigration_Act_of_1918" title="Immigration Act of 1918">Immigration Act of 1918</a></li>

<li><a href="Emergency_Quota_Act_of_1921" class="mw-redirect" title="Emergency Quota Act of 1921">Emergency Quota Act of 1921</a></li>

<li><a href="Cable_Act_of_1922" class="mw-redirect" title="Cable Act of 1922">Cable Act of 1922</a></li>

<li><a href="Immigration_Act_of_1924" title="Immigration Act of 1924">Immigration Act of 1924</a></li>

<li><a href="Indian_Citizenship_Act_of_1924" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Citizenship Act of 1924">Indian Citizenship Act of 1924</a></li>

<li><a href="Philippine_Independence_Act_of_1934" class="mw-redirect" title="Philippine Independence Act of 1934">Philippine Independence Act of 1934</a></li>

<li><a href="Filipino_Repatriation_Act_of_1935" class="mw-redirect" title="Filipino Repatriation Act of 1935">Filipino Repatriation Act of 1935</a></li>

<li><a href="Nationality_Act_of_1940" title="Nationality Act of 1940">Nationality Act of 1940</a></li>

<li><a href="Chinese_Exclusion_Repeal_Act_of_1943" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese Exclusion Repeal Act of 1943">Chinese Exclusion Repeal Act of 1943</a></li>

<li><a href="War_Brides_Act_of_1945" class="mw-redirect" title="War Brides Act of 1945">War Brides Act of 1945</a></li>

<li><a href="Alien_Fianc%C3%A9es_and_Fianc%C3%A9s_Act_of_1946" title="Alien Fiancées and Fiancés Act of 1946">Alien Fiancées and Fiancés Act of 1946</a></li>

<li><a href="Luce%E2%80%93Celler_Act_of_1946" class="mw-redirect" title="Luce–Celler Act of 1946">Luce–Celler Act of 1946</a></li>

<li><a href="Convention_relating_to_the_Status_of_Refugees" class="mw-redirect" title="Convention relating to the Status of Refugees">UN Refugee Convention (1951)</a></li>

<li><a href="Immigration_and_Nationality_Act_of_1952" title="Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952">Immigration and Nationality Act 1952</a> / <a href="Immigration_and_Nationality_Act_of_1965" title="Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965">1965</a></li>

<li><a href="Refugee_Act_of_1980" title="Refugee Act of 1980">Refugee Act of 1980</a></li>

<li><a href="Immigration_Reform_and_Control_Act_of_1986" title="Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986">Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986</a></li>

<li><a href="Family_Fairness" title="Family Fairness">Family Fairness (1987)</a></li>

<li><a href="Amerasian_Homecoming_Act_of_1987" class="mw-redirect" title="Amerasian Homecoming Act of 1987">Amerasian Homecoming Act of 1987</a></li>

<li><a href="Immigration_Act_of_1990" title="Immigration Act of 1990">Immigration Act of 1990</a></li>

<li><a href="Immigration_and_Nationality_Technical_Corrections_Act_of_1994" title="Immigration and Nationality Technical Corrections Act of 1994">Immigration and Nationality Technical Corrections Act of 1994</a></li>

<li><a href="Antiterrorism_and_Effective_Death_Penalty_Act_of_1996" title="Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996">Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996</a></li>

<li><a href="Illegal_Immigration_Reform_and_Immigrant_Responsibility_Act_of_1996" title="Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996">Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996</a></li>

<li><a href="Nicaraguan_Adjustment_and_Central_American_Relief_Act_of_1997" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicaraguan Adjustment and Central American Relief Act of 1997">Nicaraguan Adjustment and Central American Relief Act of 1997</a></li>

<li><a href="American_Competitiveness_and_Workforce_Improvement_Act_of_1998" title="American Competitiveness and Workforce Improvement Act of 1998">American Competitiveness and Workforce Improvement Act of 1998</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">21st century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="American_Competitiveness_in_the_21st_Century_Act" title="American Competitiveness in the 21st Century Act">American Competitiveness in the 21st Century Act of 2000</a></li>

<li><a href="Victims_of_Trafficking_and_Violence_Protection_Act_of_2000" title="Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000">Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000</a></li>

<li><a href="Child_Citizenship_Act_of_2000" title="Child Citizenship Act of 2000">Child Citizenship Act of 2000</a></li>

<li><a href="Legal_Immigration_Family_Equity_Act_of_2000" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal Immigration Family Equity Act of 2000">Legal Immigration Family Equity Act of 2000</a></li>

<li><a href="Homeland_Security_Act_of_2002" title="Homeland Security Act of 2002">Homeland Security Act of 2002</a></li>

<li><a href="H-1B_Visa_Reform_Act_of_2004" title="H-1B Visa Reform Act of 2004">H-1B Visa Reform Act of 2004</a></li>

<li><a href="International_Marriage_Broker_Regulation_Act" title="International Marriage Broker Regulation Act">International Marriage Broker Regulation Act of 2005</a></li>

<li><a href="Secure_Fence_Act_of_2006" title="Secure Fence Act of 2006">Secure Fence Act of 2006</a></li>

<li><a href="Emergency_Afghan_Allies_Extension_Act_of_2014" title="Emergency Afghan Allies Extension Act of 2014">Emergency Afghan Allies Extension Act of 2014</a></li>

<li><a href="Laken_Riley_Act" title="Laken Riley Act">Laken Riley Act of 2025</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Visas and policies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Visa_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Visa policy of the United States">Visa policy</a>

<ul><li><a href="Green_card" title="Green card">Permanent residence (Green card)</a></li>

<li><a href="Visa_Waiver_Program" title="Visa Waiver Program">Visa Waiver Program</a></li>

<li><a href="Temporary_protected_status" title="Temporary protected status">Temporary protected status (TPS)</a></li>

<li><a href="Asylum_in_the_United_States" title="Asylum in the United States">Asylum</a></li>

<li><a href="Diversity_Immigrant_Visa" title="Diversity Immigrant Visa">Green Card Lottery</a></li>

<li><a href="Central_American_Minors_Program" title="Central American Minors Program">Central American Minors</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Employment_authorization_document" title="Employment authorization document">Employment authorization document (EAD card)</a></li>

<li><a href="Deferred_action" title="Deferred action">Deferred action</a></li>

<li><a href="Deferred_Action_for_Childhood_Arrivals" title="Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals">Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA)</a></li>

<li><a href="Deferred_Action_for_Parents_of_Americans" title="Deferred Action for Parents of Americans">Deferred Action for Parents of Americans (DAPA)</a></li>

<li><a href="Parole_(United_States_immigration)" title="Parole (United States immigration)">Parole</a></li>

<li><a href="Keeping_Families_Together_(United_States_immigration_policy)" title="Keeping Families Together (United States immigration policy)">Keeping Families Together (KFT)</a></li>

<li><a href="Adjustment_of_status" title="Adjustment of status">Adjustment of status</a></li>

<li><a href="US-VISIT" class="mw-redirect" title="US-VISIT">US-VISIT</a></li>

<li><a href="Security_Advisory_Opinion" title="Security Advisory Opinion">Security Advisory Opinion</a></li>

<li><a href="E-Verify" title="E-Verify">E-Verify</a></li>

<li><a href="National_Origins_Formula" title="National Origins Formula">National Origins Formula</a></li>

<li><a href="Expedited_removal" title="Expedited removal">Expedited removal</a></li>

<li><a href="Immigration_detention_in_the_United_States" title="Immigration detention in the United States">Detention</a>

<ul><li><a href="Family_immigration_detention_in_the_United_States" title="Family immigration detention in the United States">Family</a></li>

<li><a href="Unaccompanied_Alien_Children" title="Unaccompanied Alien Children">Unaccompanied children</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Trump_administration_family_separation_policy" title="Trump administration family separation policy">Trump administration family separation policy</a></li>

<li><a href="Trump_travel_ban" title="Trump travel ban">Trump travel ban</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Government organizations</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="United_States_Department_of_Homeland_Security" title="United States Department of Homeland Security">Department of Homeland Security</a></li>

<li><a href="United_States_Immigration_and_Customs_Enforcement" title="United States Immigration and Customs Enforcement">Immigration and Customs Enforcement</a></li>

<li><a href="U.S._Border_Patrol" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Border Patrol">U.S. Border Patrol</a> (<a href="BORTAC" title="BORTAC">BORTAC</a>)</li>

<li><a href="U.S._Customs_and_Border_Protection" title="U.S. Customs and Border Protection">U.S. Customs and Border Protection</a></li>

<li><a href="United_States_Citizenship_and_Immigration_Services" title="United States Citizenship and Immigration Services">U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services</a></li>

<li><a href="United_States_Immigration_and_Naturalization_Service" title="United States Immigration and Naturalization Service">Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS)</a></li>

<li><a href="Executive_Office_for_Immigration_Review" title="Executive Office for Immigration Review">Executive Office for Immigration Review</a></li>

<li><a href="Board_of_Immigration_Appeals" title="Board of Immigration Appeals">Board of Immigration Appeals</a></li>

<li><a href="Office_of_Refugee_Resettlement" title="Office of Refugee Resettlement">Office of Refugee Resettlement</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Supreme Court cases</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Nishimura_Ekiu_v._United_States" title="Nishimura Ekiu v. United States">Nishimura Ekiu v. U.S.</a> (1892)</li>

<li><a href="Ozawa_v._United_States" title="Ozawa v. United States">Ozawa v. U.S.</a> (1922)</li>

<li><a href="United_States_v._Bhagat_Singh_Thind" title="United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind">U.S. v. Bhagat Singh Thind</a> (1923)</li>

<li><a href="United_States_ex_rel._Knauff_v._Shaughnessy" title="United States ex rel. Knauff v. Shaughnessy">Knauff v. Shaughnessy</a> (1950)</li>

<li><a href="Harisiades_v._Shaughnessy" title="Harisiades v. Shaughnessy">Harisiades v. Shaughnessy</a> (1952)</li>

<li><a href="Shaughnessy_v._United_States_ex_rel._Mezei" title="Shaughnessy v. United States ex rel. Mezei">Shaughnessy v. Mezei</a> (1953)</li>

<li><a href="Kleindienst_v._Mandel" title="Kleindienst v. Mandel">Kleindienst v. Mandel</a> (1972)</li>

<li><a href="United_States_v._Brignoni-Ponce" title="United States v. Brignoni-Ponce">U.S. v. Brignoni-Ponce</a> (1975)</li>

<li><a href="Zadvydas_v._Davis" title="Zadvydas v. Davis">Zadvydas v. Davis</a> (2001)</li>

<li><a href="Chamber_of_Commerce_v._Whiting" title="Chamber of Commerce v. Whiting">Chamber of Commerce v. Whiting</a> (2011)</li>

<li><a href="Trump_v._Hawaii" title="Trump v. Hawaii">Trump v. Hawaii</a> (2018)</li>

<li><a href="Department_of_Homeland_Security_v._Regents_of_the_University_of_California" title="Department of Homeland Security v. Regents of the University of California">D.H.S. v. Regents of the Univ. of Cal.</a> (2020)</li>

<li><a href="Department_of_Homeland_Security_v._Thuraissigiam" title="Department of Homeland Security v. Thuraissigiam">D.H.S. v. Thuraissigiam</a> (2020)</li>

<li><a href="Department_of_State_v._Mu%C3%B1oz" title="Department of State v. Muñoz">Department of State v. Muñoz</a> (2024)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Related issues and events</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="2006_United_States_immigration_reform_protests" title="2006 United States immigration reform protests">2006 protests</a></li>

<li><a href="Brooks_County%2C_Texas" title="Brooks County, Texas">Brooks County, Texas</a></li>

<li><a href="Central_American_migrant_caravans" title="Central American migrant caravans">Central American migrant caravans</a></li>

<li><a href="Economic_impact_of_illegal_immigration_to_the_United_States" title="Economic impact of illegal immigration to the United States">Economic impact</a></li>

<li><a href="Effects_of_immigration_to_the_United_States" title="Effects of immigration to the United States">Effects</a></li>

<li><a href="Eugenics_in_the_United_States" title="Eugenics in the United States">Eugenics in the United States</a></li>

<li><a href="Guest_worker_program" title="Guest worker program">Guest worker program</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_trafficking_in_the_United_States" title="Human trafficking in the United States">Human trafficking</a></li>

<li><a href="People_smuggling" title="People smuggling">Human smuggling</a>

<ul><li><a href="Coyotaje" class="mw-redirect" title="Coyotaje">Coyotaje</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Immigration_reduction_in_the_United_States" title="Immigration reduction in the United States">Immigration reduction</a></li>

<li><a href="Immigration_reform" title="Immigration reform">Immigration reform</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_people_deported_or_removed_from_the_United_States" title="List of people deported or removed from the United States">List of people deported from the United States</a></li>

<li><a href="Mexico%E2%80%93United_States_border_crisis" title="Mexico–United States border crisis">Mexico–United States border crisis</a></li>

<li><a href="Mexico%E2%80%93United_States_border_wall" title="Mexico–United States border wall">Mexico–United States border wall</a></li>

<li><a href="Shortage#add_Labor_shortage" title="Shortage">Labor shortage</a></li>

<li><a href="March_for_America" title="March for America">March for America</a></li>

<li><a href="Undocumented_immigrant_population_of_the_United_States" title="Undocumented immigrant population of the United States">Undocumented immigrant population</a></li>

<li><a href="Reverse_immigration_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Reverse immigration in the United States">Reverse immigration</a></li>

<li><a href="2014_American_immigration_crisis" title="2014 American immigration crisis">Unaccompanied minors from Central America</a></li>

<li><a href="Illegal_immigration_to_the_United_States" title="Illegal immigration to the United States">Illegal immigration to the United States</a></li>

<li><a href="Detention_and_deportation_of_American_citizens_in_the_second_Trump_administration" title="Detention and deportation of American citizens in the second Trump administration">Detention and deportation of American citizens in the second Trump administration</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Geography</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Mexico%E2%80%93United_States_border" title="Mexico–United States border">Mexico–United States border</a></li>

<li><a href="Canada%E2%80%93United_States_border" title="Canada–United States border">Canada–United States border</a></li>

<li><a href="United_States_Border_Patrol_interior_checkpoints" title="United States Border Patrol interior checkpoints">United States Border Patrol interior checkpoints</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Proposed legislation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="DREAM_Act" title="DREAM Act">DREAM Act (2001–2010)</a></li>

<li><a href="Secure_America_and_Orderly_Immigration_Act" title="Secure America and Orderly Immigration Act">McCain–Kennedy (2005)</a></li>

<li><a href="Comprehensive_Immigration_Reform_Act_of_2006" title="Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2006">Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act 2006</a></li>

<li><a href="Security_Through_Regularized_Immigration_and_a_Vibrant_Economy_Act_of_2007" title="Security Through Regularized Immigration and a Vibrant Economy Act of 2007">STRIVE Act (2007)</a></li>

<li><a href="Comprehensive_Immigration_Reform_Act_of_2007" title="Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2007">Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act 2007</a></li>

<li><a href="Uniting_American_Families_Act" title="Uniting American Families Act">Uniting American Families Act (2000–2013)</a></li>

<li><a href="Border_Security%2C_Economic_Opportunity%2C_and_Immigration_Modernization_Act_of_2013" title="Border Security, Economic Opportunity, and Immigration Modernization Act of 2013">Border Security, Economic Opportunity, and Immigration Modernization Act of 2013</a></li>

<li><a href="RAISE_Act" title="RAISE Act">RAISE Act (2017)</a></li>

<li><a href="U.S._Citizenship_Act_of_2021" title="U.S. Citizenship Act of 2021">U.S. Citizenship Act of 2021</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Immigration stations and points of entry</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Angel_Island_Immigration_Station" title="Angel Island Immigration Station">Angel Island</a></li>

<li><a href="Castle_Clinton" title="Castle Clinton">Castle Garden</a></li>

<li><a href="East_Boston_Immigration_Station" title="East Boston Immigration Station">East Boston</a></li>

<li><a href="Ellis_Island" title="Ellis Island">Ellis Island</a></li>

<li><a href="San_Ysidro_Port_of_Entry" title="San Ysidro Port of Entry">San Ysidro</a></li>

<li><a href="Sullivan's_Island%2C_South_Carolina" title="Sullivan's Island, South Carolina">Sullivan's Island</a></li>

<li><a href="Washington_Avenue_Immigration_Station" title="Washington Avenue Immigration Station">Washington Avenue</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Operations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Operation_Wetback" title="Operation Wetback">"Wetback" (1954)</a></li>

<li><a href="Operation_Peter_Pan" title="Operation Peter Pan">"Peter Pan" (1960–1962)</a></li>

<li><a href="Operation_Babylift" title="Operation Babylift">"Babylift" (1975)</a></li>

<li><a href="Operation_Gatekeeper" title="Operation Gatekeeper">"Gatekeeper" (1994)</a></li>

<li><a href="Operation_Endgame" title="Operation Endgame">"Endgame" (2003–2012)</a></li>

<li><a href="Operation_Front_Line" title="Operation Front Line">"Front Line" (2004–2005)</a></li>

<li><a href="Operation_Streamline" title="Operation Streamline">"Streamline" (2005–present)</a></li>

<li><a href="Operation_Return_to_Sender" title="Operation Return to Sender">"Return to Sender" (2006–2007)</a></li>

<li><a href="Operation_Jump_Start" title="Operation Jump Start">"Jump Start" (2006–2008)</a></li>

<li><a href="Operation_Phalanx_(2010-2016)" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Phalanx (2010-2016)">"Phalanx" (2010–2016)</a></li>

<li><a href="Operation_Faithful_Patriot" title="Operation Faithful Patriot">"Faithful Patriot" (2018–present)</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">State legislation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="California_DREAM_Act" title="California DREAM Act">California DREAM Act (2006–2010)</a></li>

<li><a href="Arizona_SB_1070" title="Arizona SB 1070">Arizona SB 1070 (2010)</a></li>

<li><a href="Alabama_HB_56" title="Alabama HB 56">Alabama HB 56 (2011)</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Non-governmental organizations</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Arizona_Border_Recon" title="Arizona Border Recon">Arizona Border Recon</a></li>

<li><a href="California_Coalition_for_Immigration_Reform" title="California Coalition for Immigration Reform">California Coalition for Immigration Reform</a></li>

<li><a href="CASA_of_Maryland" class="mw-redirect" title="CASA of Maryland">CASA of Maryland</a></li>

<li><a href="Center_for_Immigration_Studies" title="Center for Immigration Studies">Center for Immigration Studies</a></li>

<li><a href="Center_for_Migration_Studies_of_New_York" title="Center for Migration Studies of New York">Center for Migration Studies of New York</a></li>

<li><a href="Coalition_for_Humane_Immigrant_Rights_of_Los_Angeles" title="Coalition for Humane Immigrant Rights of Los Angeles">Coalition for Humane Immigrant Rights of Los Angeles</a></li>

<li><a href="Coalition_for_Comprehensive_Immigration_Reform" title="Coalition for Comprehensive Immigration Reform">Coalition for Comprehensive Immigration Reform</a></li>

<li><a href="Community_Change" title="Community Change">Community Change</a></li>

<li><a href="Federation_for_American_Immigration_Reform" title="Federation for American Immigration Reform">Federation for American Immigration Reform</a></li>

<li><a href="Improve_The_Dream" title="Improve The Dream">Improve The Dream</a></li>

<li><a href="Mexica_Movement" title="Mexica Movement">Mexica Movement</a></li>

<li><a href="Mexicans_Without_Borders" title="Mexicans Without Borders">Mexicans Without Borders</a></li>

<li><a href="Migration_Policy_Institute" title="Migration Policy Institute">Migration Policy Institute</a></li>

<li><a href="Minuteman_Civil_Defense_Corps" title="Minuteman Civil Defense Corps">Minuteman Civil Defense Corps</a></li>

<li><a href="Minuteman_Project" title="Minuteman Project">Minuteman Project</a></li>

<li><a href="National_Immigration_Forum" title="National Immigration Forum">National Immigration Forum</a></li>

<li><a href="National_Korean_American_Service_%26_Education_Consortium" title="National Korean American Service & Education Consortium">National Korean American Service & Education Consortium (NAKASEC)</a></li>

<li><a href="Negative_Population_Growth" title="Negative Population Growth">Negative Population Growth</a></li>

<li><a href="No_More_Deaths" title="No More Deaths">No More Deaths</a></li>

<li><a href="NumbersUSA" title="NumbersUSA">NumbersUSA</a></li>

<li><a href="Save_Our_State" title="Save Our State">Save Our State</a></li>

<li><a href="Utah_Compact" title="Utah Compact">Utah Compact</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Documentaries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Borderland_(TV_series)" title="Borderland (TV series)">Borderland (TV series)</a></li>

<li><a href="Missing_in_Brooks_County" title="Missing in Brooks County">Missing in Brooks County</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Agriculture_in_the_United_States285" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><div id="Agriculture_in_the_United_States285" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="Agriculture in the United States">Agriculture in the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="History of agriculture in the United States">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Rural_American_history" title="Rural American history">Rural American history</a></li>

<li><a href="African-American_history_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American history of agriculture in the United States">African-American</a>

<ul><li><a href="Black_land_loss_in_the_United_States" title="Black land loss in the United States">Black land loss</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Ancient_Hawaiian_aquaculture" title="Ancient Hawaiian aquaculture">Ancient Hawaiian aquaculture</a></li>

<li><a href="Cattle_drives_in_the_United_States" title="Cattle drives in the United States">Cattle drives</a></li>

<li><a href="Columbian_exchange" title="Columbian exchange">Columbian exchange</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_commercial_tobacco_in_the_United_States" title="History of commercial tobacco in the United States">Commercial tobacco</a>

<ul><li><a href="Tobacco_in_the_American_colonies" title="Tobacco in the American colonies">Colonial</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Eastern_Agricultural_Complex" title="Eastern Agricultural Complex">Eastern Agricultural Complex</a>

<ul><li><a href="Three_Sisters_(agriculture)" title="Three Sisters (agriculture)">Three Sisters</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Early_history_of_food_regulation_in_the_United_States" title="Early history of food regulation in the United States">Early history of food regulation in the United States</a></li>

<li><a href="Indentured_servitude_in_British_America" title="Indentured servitude in British America">Indentured servitude in British America</a>

<ul><li><a href="Indentured_servitude_in_Virginia" title="Indentured servitude in Virginia">Virginia</a></li>

<li><a href="Indentured_servitude_in_Pennsylvania" title="Indentured servitude in Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="New_World_crops" title="New World crops">New World crops</a>

<ul><li><a href="List_of_food_plants_native_to_the_Americas" title="List of food plants native to the Americas">List of food plants native to the Americas</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Native_American_agriculture_in_Virginia" title="Native American agriculture in Virginia">Native American in Virginia</a></li>

<li><a href="Prehistoric_agriculture_on_the_Great_Plains" title="Prehistoric agriculture on the Great Plains">Prehistoric agriculture on the Great Plains</a></li>

<li><a href="Prehistoric_agriculture_in_the_Southwestern_United_States" title="Prehistoric agriculture in the Southwestern United States">Prehistoric agriculture in the Southwestern United States</a></li>

<li><a href="Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States" title="Plantation complexes in the Southern United States">Plantation complexes in the Southern United States</a></li>

<li><a href="Range_war" title="Range war">Range war</a>

<ul><li><a href="Sheep_wars" title="Sheep wars">Sheep wars</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery</a>

<ul><li><a href="Slavery_among_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery among Native Americans in the United States">Native American</a></li>

<li><a href="Slavery_in_the_colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the colonial history of the United States">Colonial</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="10" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Industries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Banana_production_in_the_United_States" title="Banana production in the United States">Banana</a></li>

<li><a href="Blackcurrant_production_in_the_United_States" title="Blackcurrant production in the United States">Blackcurrant</a></li>

<li><a href="Cannabis_in_the_United_States" title="Cannabis in the United States">Cannabis</a>

<li><a href="Cherry_production_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Cherry production in the United States">Cherry</a></li>

<li><a href="Christmas_tree_production_in_the_United_States" title="Christmas tree production in the United States">Christmas tree</a></li>

<li><a href="Cotton_production_in_the_United_States" title="Cotton production in the United States">Cotton</a></li>

<li><a href="Cider_in_the_United_States" title="Cider in the United States">Cider</a></li>

<li><a href="Dairy_industry_in_the_United_States" title="Dairy industry in the United States">Dairy</a></li>

<li><a href="Poultry_farming_in_the_United_States" title="Poultry farming in the United States">Poultry</a></li>

<li><a href="Spinach_in_the_United_States" title="Spinach in the United States">Spinach</a></li>

<li><a href="Sugar_industry_of_the_United_States" title="Sugar industry of the United States">Sugar</a></li>

<li><a href="Tobacco_in_the_United_States" title="Tobacco in the United States">Tobacco</a>

<ul><li><a href="Connecticut_shade_tobacco" title="Connecticut shade tobacco">Connecticut shade tobacco</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Wheat_production_in_the_United_States" title="Wheat production in the United States">Wheat</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">State, commonwealth, or territory-specific</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Agriculture_in_Alabama" class="mw-redirect" title="Agriculture in Alabama">Alabama</a>

<ul><li><a href="Tobacco_in_Alabama" title="Tobacco in Alabama">tobacco</a></li>

<li><a href="Agriculture_in_Alaska" title="Agriculture in Alaska">Alaska</a>

<ul><li><a href="Aquaculture_in_Alaska" title="Aquaculture in Alaska">aquaculture</a></li>

<li><a href="Cannabis_in_Alaska" title="Cannabis in Alaska">cannabis</a></li>

<li><a href="Agriculture_in_Arizona" title="Agriculture in Arizona">Arizona</a>

<li><a href="Cannabis_in_Arizona" title="Cannabis in Arizona">cannabis</a></li></ul></li>

<li>Arkansas

<li><a href="Agriculture_in_California" title="Agriculture in California">California</a>

<ul><li><a href="Almonds_in_California" class="mw-redirect" title="Almonds in California">almonds</a></li>

<li><a href="Cannabis_in_California" title="Cannabis in California">cannabis</a></li>

<li><a href="Walnuts_in_California" title="Walnuts in California">walnuts</a></li>

<li><a href="Agriculture_in_Colorado" class="mw-redirect" title="Agriculture in Colorado">Colorado</a>

<li><a href="Cannabis_in_Colorado" title="Cannabis in Colorado">cannabis</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Agriculture_in_Connecticut" title="Agriculture in Connecticut">Connecticut</a>

<ul><li><a href="Cannabis_in_Connecticut" title="Cannabis in Connecticut">cannabis</a></li>

<li>Delaware

<ul><li><a href="Cannabis_in_Delaware" title="Cannabis in Delaware">cannabis</a></li>

<li><a href="Agriculture_in_Florida" title="Agriculture in Florida">Florida</a>

<li><a href="Tomato_production_in_Florida" title="Tomato production in Florida">tomato</a></li>

<li><a href="Mango_production_in_Florida" title="Mango production in Florida">mango</a></li></ul></li>

<li>Georgia

<li><a href="Agriculture_in_Hawaii" title="Agriculture in Hawaii">Hawaii</a>

<ul><li><a href="Coffee_production_in_Hawaii" title="Coffee production in Hawaii">coffee</a></li>

<li><a href="Sugar_plantations_in_Hawaii" title="Sugar plantations in Hawaii">sugar</a></li>

<li><a href="Genetically_modified_food_in_Hawaii" title="Genetically modified food in Hawaii">genetically modified food</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Agriculture_in_Idaho" title="Agriculture in Idaho">Idaho</a>

<li>Illinois

<ul><li><a href="Cannabis_in_Illinois" title="Cannabis in Illinois">cannabis</a></li>

<li><a href="Agriculture_in_Indiana" class="mw-redirect" title="Agriculture in Indiana">Indiana</a>

<li>Kansas

<li><a href="Agriculture_in_Kentucky" title="Agriculture in Kentucky">Kentucky</a>

<li>Louisiana

<li>Maine

<ul><li><a href="Aquaculture_in_Maine" title="Aquaculture in Maine">aquaculture</a></li>

<li><a href="Cannabis_in_Maine" title="Cannabis in Maine">cannabis</a></li>

<li><a href="Agriculture_in_Maryland" title="Agriculture in Maryland">Maryland</a>

<ul><li><a href="Cannabis_in_Maryland" title="Cannabis in Maryland">cannabis</a></li>

<li>Massachusetts

<ul><li><a href="Cannabis_in_Massachusetts" title="Cannabis in Massachusetts">cannabis</a></li>

<li>Michigan

<ul><li><a href="Cannabis_in_Michigan" title="Cannabis in Michigan">cannabis</a></li>

<li><a href="Cherry_production_in_Michigan" title="Cherry production in Michigan">cherries</a></li>

<li>Minnesota

<li><a href="Agriculture_in_Mississippi" title="Agriculture in Mississippi">Mississippi</a>

<li>Missouri

<ul><li><a href="Cannabis_in_Missouri" title="Cannabis in Missouri">cannabis</a></li>

<li>Montana

<ul><li><a href="Cannabis_in_Montana" title="Cannabis in Montana">cannabis</a></li>

<li>Nebraska

<li>Nevada

<ul><li><a href="Cannabis_in_Nevada" title="Cannabis in Nevada">cannabis</a></li>

<li>New Hampshire

<li>New Jersey

<ul><li><a href="Cannabis_in_New_Jersey" title="Cannabis in New Jersey">cannabis</a></li>

<ul><li><a href="Cannabis_in_New_York" title="Cannabis in New York">cannabis</a></li>

<li>New Mexico

<ul><li><a href="Cannabis_in_New_Mexico" title="Cannabis in New Mexico">cannabis</a></li>

<li><a href="New_Mexico_chile" title="New Mexico chile">chile</a></li>

<li><a href="Agriculture_in_North_Carolina" class="mw-redirect" title="Agriculture in North Carolina">North Carolina</a>

<li>North Dakota

<li>Ohio

<li>Oklahoma

<li>Oregon

<li><a href="Cannabis_in_Oregon" title="Cannabis in Oregon">cannabis</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Agriculture_in_Pennsylvania" title="Agriculture in Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a>

<li><a href="Agriculture_in_Puerto_Rico" title="Agriculture in Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a>

<ul><li><a href="Cannabis_in_Puerto_Rico" title="Cannabis in Puerto Rico">cannabis</a></li>

<li><a href="Coffee_production_in_Puerto_Rico" title="Coffee production in Puerto Rico">coffee</a></li></ul></li>

<li>Rhode Island

<ul><li><a href="Cannabis_in_Rhode_Island" title="Cannabis in Rhode Island">cannabis</a></li>

<li>South Carolina

<li>South Dakota

<li>Tennessee

<li>Utah

<li>Vermont

<ul><li><a href="Cannabis_in_Vermont" title="Cannabis in Vermont">cannabis</a></li>

<li>Virginia

<ul><li><a href="Cannabis_in_Virginia" title="Cannabis in Virginia">cannabis</a></li>

<li>Virgin Islands

<ul><li><a href="Cannabis_in_the_United_States_Virgin_Islands" title="Cannabis in the United States Virgin Islands">cannabis</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Agriculture_in_Washington" class="mw-redirect" title="Agriculture in Washington">Washington</a>

<ul><li><a href="Washington_apples" title="Washington apples">apples</a></li>

<li><a href="Cannabis_in_Washington_(state)" title="Cannabis in Washington (state)">cannabis</a></li>

<li>West Virginia

<li><a href="Agriculture_in_Wisconsin" title="Agriculture in Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a>

<ul><li><a href="Wisconsin_dairy_industry" title="Wisconsin dairy industry">dairy</a></li>

<li>Wyoming

<li>Guam

<ul><li><a href="Cannabis_in_Guam" title="Cannabis in Guam">cannabis</a></li></ul></li>

<li>Northern Mariana Islands

<ul><li><a href="Cannabis_in_the_Northern_Mariana_Islands" title="Cannabis in the Northern Mariana Islands">cannabis</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Agriculture_in_Texas" title="Agriculture in Texas">Texas</a>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Agriculture_in_the_Southwestern_United_States" title="Agriculture in the Southwestern United States">Southwestern United States</a></li>

<li><a href="Black_Dirt_Region" title="Black Dirt Region">Black Dirt Region</a></li>

<li><a href="Cotton_Belt" title="Cotton Belt">Cotton Belt</a></li>

<li><a href="Fruit_Belt" title="Fruit Belt">Fruit Belt</a></li>

<li><a href="Pacific_Northwest_oyster_industry" title="Pacific Northwest oyster industry">Pacific Northwest oyster industry</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Government organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="United_States_Department_of_Agriculture" title="United States Department of Agriculture">United States Department of Agriculture</a>

<ul><li><a href="National_Agricultural_Statistics_Service" title="National Agricultural Statistics Service">National Agricultural Statistics Service</a>

<ul><li><a href="United_States_Census_of_Agriculture" title="United States Census of Agriculture">United States Census of Agriculture</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Law and politics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Agricultural_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Agricultural policy of the United States">Agricultural policy</a></li>

<li><a href="Agricultural_Trade_Development_and_Assistance_Act_of_1954" title="Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act of 1954">Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act of 1954</a></li>

<li><a href="Agriculture_Risk_Protection_Act_of_2000" title="Agriculture Risk Protection Act of 2000">Agriculture Risk Protection Act of 2000</a></li>

<li><a href="California_Agricultural_Labor_Relations_Act_of_1975" title="California Agricultural Labor Relations Act of 1975">California Agricultural Labor Relations Act of 1975</a></li>

<li><a href="Capper%E2%80%93Volstead_Act" title="Capper–Volstead Act">Capper–Volstead Act</a></li>

<li><a href="Children's_Act_for_Responsible_Employment" title="Children's Act for Responsible Employment">Children's Act for Responsible Employment</a></li>

<li><a href="Food_Security_Act_of_1985" title="Food Security Act of 1985">Food Security Act of 1985</a></li>

<li><a href="Food%2C_Agriculture%2C_Conservation%2C_and_Trade_Act_of_1990" title="Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act of 1990">Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act of 1990</a></li>

<li><a href="Federal_Agriculture_Improvement_and_Reform_Act_of_1996" title="Federal Agriculture Improvement and Reform Act of 1996">Federal Agriculture Improvement and Reform Act of 1996</a></li>

<li><a href="Grain_Futures_Act" title="Grain Futures Act">Grain Futures Act</a></li>

<li><a href="Packers_and_Stockyards_Act" title="Packers and Stockyards Act">Packers and Stockyards Act</a></li>

<li><a href="Taylor_Grazing_Act_of_1934" title="Taylor Grazing Act of 1934">Taylor Grazing Act of 1934</a></li>

<li><a href="Marihuana_Tax_Act_of_1937" title="Marihuana Tax Act of 1937">Marihuana Tax Act of 1937</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Health and environment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Mental_health_in_United_States_agricultural_workers" title="Mental health in United States agricultural workers">Agricultural workers mental health</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_change_and_agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change and agriculture in the United States">Climate change</a></li>

<li><a href="Farmers'_suicides_in_the_United_States" title="Farmers' suicides in the United States">Farmer suicide</a></li>

<li><a href="Genetically_modified_food_in_the_United_States" title="Genetically modified food in the United States">Genetically modified food</a></li>

<li><a href="Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_the_United_States" title="Water supply and sanitation in the United States">Water supply</a>

<ul><li><a href="Ogallala_Aquifer" title="Ogallala Aquifer">Ogallala Aquifer</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Crime</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Adulterated_food_in_the_United_States" title="Adulterated food in the United States">Adulterated food</a></li>

<li><a href="California_nut_crimes" title="California nut crimes">California nut crimes</a></li>

<li><a href="Cattle_raiding" title="Cattle raiding">Cattle raiding</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Farmworkers_in_the_United_States" title="Farmworkers in the United States">Labor</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul>

<li><a href="Convict_leasing" title="Convict leasing">Convict leasing</a></li>

<li><a href="Farm_Labor_Organizing_Committee" title="Farm Labor Organizing Committee">Farm Labor Organizing Committee</a></li>

<ul><li><a href="Operation_Blooming_Onion" title="Operation Blooming Onion">Operation Blooming Onion</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="United_Farm_Workers" title="United Farm Workers">United Farm Workers</a></li>

<li><a href="United_Food_and_Commercial_Workers" title="United Food and Commercial Workers">United Food and Commercial Workers</a></li>

<li><a href="Woman's_Land_Army_of_America" title="Woman's Land Army of America">Woman's Land Army of America</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Ranch" title="Ranch">Ranch</a>

<ul><li><a href="Cowboy" title="Cowboy">Cowboy</a></li>

<li><a href="Dude_ranch" class="mw-redirect" title="Dude ranch">Dude ranch</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q979772#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata809" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q979772#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata809" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Authority control databases </div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/1250148523891520970002">VIAF</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.worldcat.org/fast/785521">FAST</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/no2003129738">United States</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10637165">NARA</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lux.collections.yale.edu/view/group/bab30535-cd0c-47c7-8527-1f06535debc1">Yale LUX</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

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